Nature in the nature–nurture question?

Inherited biological influences on behavior and mental processes.

Central nervous system?

The brain and spinal cord, which process information and coordinate responses.

Main role of the spinal cord?

It carries messages between brain and body and organizes some reflexes.

Scores are 4, 6, 8, 10. What is the mean?

7, found by dividing the total of 28 by 4 scores.

Nurture in the nature–nurture question?

Environmental influences, such as family, culture, education, and experience.

Peripheral nervous system?

The nerves that connect the central nervous system with the rest of the body.

A rapid neural pathway that can produce a response through the spinal cord before conscious brain processing.

Reflex times are 180, 190, 210, 260, 410 milliseconds. What is the median?

210 milliseconds, the middle score after ordering the five values.

The proportion of variation in a trait within a population that is associated with genetic differences. It doesn't describe one person's trait.

Autonomic nervous system?

The peripheral division that regulates involuntary functions of glands and internal organs.

Evolutionary perspective on behavior?

It asks how natural selection may have favored psychological traits that helped survival or reproduction.

Why is eugenics scientifically and ethically invalid?

It misuses heredity claims to rank people and justify coercion, while ignoring environmental influence, human rights, and the complexity of traits.

Why isn't behavior explained by genes or environment alone?

They interact. A biological tendency can be strengthened, weakened, or redirected by experience.

Researchers compare a trait across biological relatives who share different amounts of DNA. Which method is this?

A family study; twin comparisons are one example, but shared environments still limit causal conclusions.

Traits that support survival or reproduction can become more common across generations.

Somatic nervous system?

The peripheral division that carries sensory information and controls voluntary skeletal-muscle movement.

They carry incoming information from sensory receptors toward the central nervous system.

Which design compares adoptees with both biological and adoptive relatives?

An adoption study, used to separate some hereditary and environmental similarities.

Twins show a strong trait correlation. What keeps this result from proving genetic causation?

Correlation doesn't isolate genes from shared environments or other confounding variables.

Sympathetic nervous system?

The autonomic division that mobilizes energy during challenge or threat.

Evidence shows a genetic risk predicts an outcome only under chronic stress. Best claim?

The outcome reflects a gene–environment interaction, not a purely genetic effect.

They carry outgoing commands from the central nervous system to muscles or glands.

Sleep duration and stress are correlated. What directionality problem limits a causal conclusion?

The result cannot show whether less sleep raises stress, stress reduces sleep, or both directions operate.

Parasympathetic nervous system?

The autonomic division that calms the body and supports rest, digestion, and recovery.

The neuron's stable negative charge when it isn't firing, maintained by unequal ion concentrations across the membrane.

Neurons within the central nervous system that process information and connect other neurons.

Adrenaline's behavioral role?

It helps mobilize the body during arousal and the fight-or-flight response.

Planning, judgment, impulse control, working memory, voluntary movement, and aspects of speech.

The minimum stimulation needed to trigger an action potential.

The large fiber tract that carries information between the cerebral hemispheres.

Leptin's role in eating?

It signals stored energy and helps reduce hunger.

Auditory processing, language comprehension, memory, and object recognition.

Depolarization during an action potential?

Positive ions enter the neuron, making the membrane charge less negative and then briefly positive.

Dopamine's major psychological functions?

Movement, motivation, reward learning, attention, and reinforcement.

A substance that increases a neurotransmitter's effect by activating its receptor or supporting its action.

A brief electrical impulse that travels along a neuron after threshold is reached.

The sending neuron reabsorbs neurotransmitter from the synapse after release.

Serotonin's major psychological functions?

Mood, sleep, appetite, and arousal regulation.

Glutamate's major psychological functions?

It is the brain's main excitatory neurotransmitter and supports learning and memory.

A short recovery interval after firing when the neuron resets and can't immediately produce another full action potential.

It helps regulate circadian timing and promotes sleepiness in darkness.

A substance that blocks or reduces a neurotransmitter's effect at its receptor.

Psychoactive drugs that increase central nervous system activity and alertness.

A reduced response after repeated use, so a larger dose may be needed for the same effect.

All-or-none principle?

A neuron fires a full action potential once threshold is reached; stronger input changes firing rate, not impulse size.

Norepinephrine's major psychological functions?

Alertness, arousal, attention, and the stress response.

GABA's major psychological function?

It is the brain's main inhibitory neurotransmitter and reduces neural activity.

Oxytocin's behavioral role?

It supports social bonding and also contributes to childbirth and lactation.

A drug that keeps more neurotransmitter in the synapse by slowing reabsorption.

Flashcards Open Source App — Five-Unit Psychology Course Review

Review five units of psychology through concept recall, real-world applications, research methods, data analysis, and evidence-based reasoning.

Автор Flashcards Open Source App

Об этой колоде

Review a five-unit psychology course with 705 independently written cards, ready to install and study offline. The deck covers biological bases of behavior, cognition, development and learning, social psychology and personality, and mental and physical health. It supports four science practices through concept application, research methods and design, data interpretation, and argumentation.

What this deck practices

Concept → meaning or function: recall a concise definition, mechanism, or distinction.
Scenario → concept: identify the idea that best explains a behavior, symptom pattern, or result.
Study description → method: identify a design, variable, sampling decision, ethical safeguard, limitation, or warranted conclusion.
Data representation → interpretation: read a compact table, distribution, graph pattern, statistic, or calculation and decide what the evidence shows.
Claim + evidence → reasoning: connect evidence to a defensible psychological explanation.

The sequence follows Units 1–5, stays within the current or next topic, and puts prerequisites and chronological steps first. Manually identified definition/application, foundation/claim, scenario, cue, and near-duplicate variants are assigned semantic families. At least three cards unrelated to either variant separate consecutive members of each family. Explicit prerequisite and chronological sequences stay together only when adjacency makes the progression easier to learn.

What's deliberately left out

The deck doesn't mechanically reverse every definition, diagnose personal anecdotes, offer treatment advice, or include long essay prompts. It stays within the reviewed five-unit course boundary and leaves out detailed genetics, neuron labeling, out-of-scope theories, unlisted disorders, names-and-dates trivia, and exhaustive study permutations.

Content and scope were reviewed on 2026-08-25.

The psychological facts and course outline aren't claimed as original. The CC0 label applies only to the independently written prompts, answers, organization, metadata, and ordering, to the extent those rights exist. No examination questions, scoring materials, curriculum text, source prose, logos, or third-party media were copied.

This independent, unofficial study deck is not affiliated with or endorsed by College Board.

Карточки в этой колоде

Карточка 1
Вопрос
Nature in the nature–nurture question?
Ответ
Inherited biological influences on behavior and mental processes.
Карточка 2
Вопрос
Central nervous system?
Ответ
The brain and spinal cord, which process information and coordinate responses.
Карточка 3
Вопрос
Main role of the spinal cord?
Ответ
It carries messages between brain and body and organizes some reflexes.
Карточка 4
Вопрос
Scores are 4, 6, 8, 10. What is the mean?
Ответ
7, found by dividing the total of 28 by 4 scores.
Карточка 5
Вопрос
Nurture in the nature–nurture question?
Ответ
Environmental influences, such as family, culture, education, and experience.
Карточка 6
Вопрос
Peripheral nervous system?
Ответ
The nerves that connect the central nervous system with the rest of the body.
Карточка 7
Вопрос
Reflex arc?
Ответ
A rapid neural pathway that can produce a response through the spinal cord before conscious brain processing.
Карточка 8
Вопрос
Reflex times are 180, 190, 210, 260, 410 milliseconds. What is the median?
Ответ
210 milliseconds, the middle score after ordering the five values.
Карточка 9
Вопрос
Heritability?
Ответ
The proportion of variation in a trait within a population that is associated with genetic differences. It doesn't describe one person's trait.
Карточка 10
Вопрос
Autonomic nervous system?
Ответ
The peripheral division that regulates involuntary functions of glands and internal organs.
Карточка 11
Вопрос
Evolutionary perspective on behavior?
Ответ
It asks how natural selection may have favored psychological traits that helped survival or reproduction.
Карточка 12
Вопрос
Why is eugenics scientifically and ethically invalid?
Ответ
It misuses heredity claims to rank people and justify coercion, while ignoring environmental influence, human rights, and the complexity of traits.
Карточка 13
Вопрос
Why isn't behavior explained by genes or environment alone?
Ответ
They interact. A biological tendency can be strengthened, weakened, or redirected by experience.
Карточка 14
Вопрос
Researchers compare a trait across biological relatives who share different amounts of DNA. Which method is this?
Ответ
A family study; twin comparisons are one example, but shared environments still limit causal conclusions.
Карточка 15
Вопрос
Natural selection?
Ответ
Traits that support survival or reproduction can become more common across generations.
Карточка 16
Вопрос
Somatic nervous system?
Ответ
The peripheral division that carries sensory information and controls voluntary skeletal-muscle movement.
Карточка 17
Вопрос
Sensory neurons?
Ответ
They carry incoming information from sensory receptors toward the central nervous system.
Карточка 18
Вопрос
Which design compares adoptees with both biological and adoptive relatives?
Ответ
An adoption study, used to separate some hereditary and environmental similarities.
Карточка 19
Вопрос
Twins show a strong trait correlation. What keeps this result from proving genetic causation?
Ответ
Correlation doesn't isolate genes from shared environments or other confounding variables.
Карточка 20
Вопрос
Sympathetic nervous system?
Ответ
The autonomic division that mobilizes energy during challenge or threat.
Карточка 21
Вопрос
Evidence shows a genetic risk predicts an outcome only under chronic stress. Best claim?
Ответ
The outcome reflects a gene–environment interaction, not a purely genetic effect.
Карточка 22
Вопрос
Motor neurons?
Ответ
They carry outgoing commands from the central nervous system to muscles or glands.
Карточка 23
Вопрос
Sleep duration and stress are correlated. What directionality problem limits a causal conclusion?
Ответ
The result cannot show whether less sleep raises stress, stress reduces sleep, or both directions operate.
Карточка 24
Вопрос
Parasympathetic nervous system?
Ответ
The autonomic division that calms the body and supports rest, digestion, and recovery.
Карточка 25
Вопрос
Resting potential?
Ответ
The neuron's stable negative charge when it isn't firing, maintained by unequal ion concentrations across the membrane.
Карточка 26
Вопрос
Interneurons?
Ответ
Neurons within the central nervous system that process information and connect other neurons.
Карточка 27
Вопрос
Adrenaline's behavioral role?
Ответ
It helps mobilize the body during arousal and the fight-or-flight response.
Карточка 28
Вопрос
Frontal lobes?
Ответ
Planning, judgment, impulse control, working memory, voluntary movement, and aspects of speech.
Карточка 29
Вопрос
Neural threshold?
Ответ
The minimum stimulation needed to trigger an action potential.
Карточка 30
Вопрос
Corpus callosum?
Ответ
The large fiber tract that carries information between the cerebral hemispheres.
Карточка 31
Вопрос
Leptin's role in eating?
Ответ
It signals stored energy and helps reduce hunger.
Карточка 32
Вопрос
Temporal lobes?
Ответ
Auditory processing, language comprehension, memory, and object recognition.
Карточка 33
Вопрос
Depolarization during an action potential?
Ответ
Positive ions enter the neuron, making the membrane charge less negative and then briefly positive.
Карточка 34
Вопрос
Dopamine's major psychological functions?
Ответ
Movement, motivation, reward learning, attention, and reinforcement.
Карточка 35
Вопрос
Ghrelin's role in eating?
Ответ
It helps stimulate hunger.
Карточка 36
Вопрос
Drug agonist?
Ответ
A substance that increases a neurotransmitter's effect by activating its receptor or supporting its action.
Карточка 37
Вопрос
Action potential?
Ответ
A brief electrical impulse that travels along a neuron after threshold is reached.
Карточка 38
Вопрос
Reuptake?
Ответ
The sending neuron reabsorbs neurotransmitter from the synapse after release.
Карточка 39
Вопрос
Serotonin's major psychological functions?
Ответ
Mood, sleep, appetite, and arousal regulation.
Карточка 40
Вопрос
Glutamate's major psychological functions?
Ответ
It is the brain's main excitatory neurotransmitter and supports learning and memory.
Карточка 41
Вопрос
Refractory period?
Ответ
A short recovery interval after firing when the neuron resets and can't immediately produce another full action potential.
Карточка 42
Вопрос
Melatonin's role?
Ответ
It helps regulate circadian timing and promotes sleepiness in darkness.
Карточка 43
Вопрос
Drug antagonist?
Ответ
A substance that blocks or reduces a neurotransmitter's effect at its receptor.
Карточка 44
Вопрос
Stimulants?
Ответ
Psychoactive drugs that increase central nervous system activity and alertness.
Карточка 45
Вопрос
Drug tolerance?
Ответ
A reduced response after repeated use, so a larger dose may be needed for the same effect.
Карточка 46
Вопрос
Damage to myelin slows messages in the central nervous system. Which disorder illustrates this problem?
Ответ
Multiple sclerosis.
Карточка 47
Вопрос
All-or-none principle?
Ответ
A neuron fires a full action potential once threshold is reached; stronger input changes firing rate, not impulse size.
Карточка 48
Вопрос
Norepinephrine's major psychological functions?
Ответ
Alertness, arousal, attention, and the stress response.
Карточка 49
Вопрос
GABA's major psychological function?
Ответ
It is the brain's main inhibitory neurotransmitter and reduces neural activity.
Карточка 50
Вопрос
Oxytocin's behavioral role?
Ответ
It supports social bonding and also contributes to childbirth and lactation.
Карточка 51
Вопрос
Reuptake inhibitor?
Ответ
A drug that keeps more neurotransmitter in the synapse by slowing reabsorption.
Карточка 52
Вопрос
Depressants?
Ответ
Psychoactive drugs that reduce central nervous system activity.
Карточка 53
Вопрос
Drug withdrawal?
Ответ
Physical or psychological symptoms that can appear when regular drug use is reduced or stopped.
Карточка 54
Вопрос
Antibodies disrupt acetylcholine receptors at muscles, causing weakness. Which disorder illustrates this problem?
Ответ
Myasthenia gravis.
Карточка 55
Вопрос
Glial cells?
Ответ
Cells that support, nourish, insulate, protect, and help regulate neurons and their connections.
Карточка 56
Вопрос
Endorphins?
Ответ
Natural neurotransmitters that reduce pain and can produce pleasure.
Карточка 57
Вопрос
Substance P?
Ответ
A neurotransmitter involved in pain signaling.
Карточка 58
Вопрос
Acetylcholine's major functions?
Ответ
Muscle action, learning, memory, and attention.
Карточка 59
Вопрос
Opioids?
Ответ
Drugs that bind to opioid receptors, reducing pain and often producing relaxation or euphoria.
Карточка 60
Вопрос
Hallucinogens?
Ответ
Drugs that alter perception and can produce sensory experiences without matching external input.
Карточка 61
Вопрос
Addiction?
Ответ
Compulsive substance use or behavior that continues despite harmful consequences and is difficult to control.
Карточка 62
Вопрос
Parietal lobes?
Ответ
Body-sense processing, spatial attention, and integrating sensory information.
Карточка 63
Вопрос
Consciousness?
Ответ
Awareness of internal experiences and the surrounding environment.
Карточка 64
Вопрос
Circadian rhythm?
Ответ
A roughly 24-hour biological cycle that helps regulate sleep and wakefulness.
Карточка 65
Вопрос
Damage causes slow, effortful speech with relatively preserved comprehension. Likely region?
Ответ
Broca's area, usually in the left frontal lobe.
Карточка 66
Вопрос
Occipital lobes?
Ответ
Primary cortical processing of visual information.
Карточка 67
Вопрос
What does split-brain research reveal?
Ответ
When the corpus callosum is severed, the hemispheres can process some information independently.
Карточка 68
Вопрос
How does the suprachiasmatic nucleus regulate circadian rhythm?
Ответ
It uses light information from the eyes to coordinate the body's roughly 24-hour clock.
Карточка 69
Вопрос
NREM-1 sleep?
Ответ
The light transition into sleep, sometimes accompanied by hypnagogic sensations.
Карточка 70
Вопрос
Motor cortex?
Ответ
A frontal-lobe strip that directs voluntary movement.
Карточка 71
Вопрос
Damage causes fluent but nonsensical speech and poor comprehension. Likely region?
Ответ
Wernicke's area, usually in the left temporal lobe.
Карточка 72
Вопрос
Brainstem's core function?
Ответ
It supports basic survival functions and connects the brain with the spinal cord.
Карточка 73
Вопрос
NREM-2 sleep?
Ответ
A light sleep stage marked by sleep spindles and K-complexes.
Карточка 74
Вопрос
Somatosensory cortex?
Ответ
A parietal-lobe strip that registers touch and body-position information.
Карточка 75
Вопрос
Medulla's main functions?
Ответ
It regulates vital automatic functions such as breathing and heart rate.
Карточка 76
Вопрос
Reticular activating system?
Ответ
A brainstem network involved in alertness, arousal, and the sleep–wake cycle.
Карточка 77
Вопрос
NREM-3 sleep?
Ответ
Deep slow-wave sleep, associated with physical restoration and difficult awakening.
Карточка 78
Вопрос
Cerebellum's main functions?
Ответ
Balance, coordinated movement, procedural learning, and timing.
Карточка 79
Вопрос
Thalamus?
Ответ
A relay that directs most sensory information to the cerebral cortex and helps regulate alertness.
Карточка 80
Вопрос
Hypothalamus?
Ответ
It helps regulate homeostasis, hunger, thirst, temperature, sexual behavior, and endocrine activity.
Карточка 81
Вопрос
REM sleep?
Ответ
A stage with vivid dreaming, rapid eye movements, active brain patterns, and skeletal-muscle paralysis.
Карточка 82
Вопрос
Why is the pituitary called a master gland?
Ответ
Its hormones influence other endocrine glands, under the hypothalamus's control.
Карточка 83
Вопрос
Amygdala?
Ответ
A limbic structure involved in processing emotion, threat, and emotional learning.
Карточка 84
Вопрос
Hippocampus?
Ответ
A limbic structure essential for forming new explicit memories and spatial memory.
Карточка 85
Вопрос
How does sleep change across a typical night?
Ответ
NREM and REM repeat in cycles; REM periods generally lengthen toward morning.
Карточка 86
Вопрос
Contralateral brain control?
Ответ
Each cerebral hemisphere mainly receives sensory input from and controls movement on the opposite side of the body.
Карточка 87
Вопрос
What does an EEG measure?
Ответ
Electrical activity recorded from the scalp, with strong timing information but limited spatial precision.
Карточка 88
Вопрос
Reward-center activity?
Ответ
Activity in neural reward pathways can reinforce behaviors that predict desirable outcomes.
Карточка 89
Вопрос
Neuroplasticity?
Ответ
The nervous system's ability to change its organization or function through experience, learning, or injury.
Карточка 90
Вопрос
Which method shows brain activity changing during a task?
Ответ
A functional brain-imaging method, such as fMRI or PET, rather than a structural scan alone.
Карточка 91
Вопрос
A patient loses a function after damage to one brain region. What is the cautious conclusion?
Ответ
The region contributes to the function, but the behavior may depend on a wider network.
Карточка 92
Вопрос
Insomnia?
Ответ
Persistent difficulty falling asleep, staying asleep, or obtaining restorative sleep.
Карточка 93
Вопрос
How do wavelength and amplitude shape sound?
Ответ
Wavelength relates to frequency and perceived pitch; amplitude relates to intensity and perceived loudness.
Карточка 94
Вопрос
Absolute threshold?
Ответ
The minimum stimulation detected 50% of the time.
Карточка 95
Вопрос
Activation-synthesis view of dreams?
Ответ
The brain builds a story while interpreting internally generated neural activity during sleep.
Карточка 96
Вопрос
Narcolepsy?
Ответ
A disorder involving sudden sleep attacks and abnormal entry into REM sleep.
Карточка 97
Вопрос
Why can jet lag disrupt sleep?
Ответ
The internal circadian clock is temporarily out of sync with the new light–dark schedule.
Карточка 98
Вопрос
Difference threshold?
Ответ
The smallest change between stimuli detected 50% of the time.
Карточка 99
Вопрос
Consolidation view of dreams?
Ответ
Dreaming may reflect the brain organizing and integrating recent memories.
Карточка 100
Вопрос
REM sleep behavior disorder?
Ответ
Loss of normal REM muscle paralysis, allowing a person to act out dreams.
Карточка 101
Вопрос
Why can rotating shift work impair sleep?
Ответ
Frequent schedule changes force the circadian system to keep readjusting.
Карточка 102
Вопрос
Weber's law?
Ответ
The noticeable difference between two stimuli is a constant proportion of the original intensity.
Карточка 103
Вопрос
Two supported functions of sleep?
Ответ
Memory consolidation and restoration of resources used during waking activity.
Карточка 104
Вопрос
Sleep apnea?
Ответ
Repeated breathing interruptions during sleep that fragment sleep and reduce oxygen.
Карточка 105
Вопрос
REM rebound?
Ответ
A temporary increase in REM sleep after a period of REM deprivation.
Карточка 106
Вопрос
Signal detection theory?
Ответ
Detection depends on stimulus strength plus expectations, experience, motivation, and alertness.
Карточка 107
Вопрос
Sensory transduction?
Ответ
Sensory receptors convert physical energy into neural signals.
Карточка 108
Вопрос
Vestibular sense?
Ответ
The sense of balance and head movement, supported by structures in the inner ear.
Карточка 109
Вопрос
Somnambulism?
Ответ
Sleepwalking, which most often occurs during deep NREM sleep.
Карточка 110
Вопрос
Why is there a blind spot in each eye?
Ответ
The optic nerve leaves the retina at a point with no rods or cones.
Карточка 111
Вопрос
What begins visual transduction?
Ответ
Retinal receptors convert light into neural signals that travel toward the brain.
Карточка 112
Вопрос
A sound reaches the left ear slightly earlier and louder than the right. Where will it seem to originate?
Ответ
From the left, because the brain compares arrival-time and intensity differences between the ears.
Карточка 113
Вопрос
Why are taste and smell called chemical senses?
Ответ
Their receptors respond to molecules from food or the air.
Карточка 114
Вопрос
Accommodation in vision?
Ответ
The lens changes shape to focus near or distant objects on the retina.
Карточка 115
Вопрос
Cones?
Ответ
Retinal receptors that support color vision and fine detail in brighter light.
Карточка 116
Вопрос
What begins auditory transduction?
Ответ
Hair cells in the inner ear convert sound-driven vibration into neural signals.
Карточка 117
Вопрос
How does trichromatic processing explain color vision?
Ответ
Three cone types respond most strongly to different wavelength ranges, and their combined activity produces color experience.
Карточка 118
Вопрос
How is smell unusual among the senses?
Ответ
Olfactory signals reach cortical and limbic areas without first passing through the thalamic relay used by other senses.
Карточка 119
Вопрос
Kinesthesia?
Ответ
The sense of body-part position and movement, based on signals from muscles, tendons, and joints.
Карточка 120
Вопрос
Place coding versus frequency coding in hearing?
Ответ
Place coding links pitch to where the cochlea responds most; frequency coding links pitch to neural firing rate.
Карточка 121
Вопрос
Nearsightedness?
Ответ
Nearby objects are clear, but distant images focus in front of the retina and look blurred.
Карточка 122
Вопрос
Pheromones?
Ответ
Chemical signals released by one organism that can affect the behavior or physiology of others of the same species.
Карточка 123
Вопрос
Touch receptors for warmth and cold fire together strongly. What sensation can result?
Ответ
A hot or burning sensation, showing that temperature experience combines receptor signals.
Карточка 124
Вопрос
Volley theory of pitch?
Ответ
Groups of auditory neurons alternate firing so their combined rate can represent pitches too fast for one neuron alone.
Карточка 125
Вопрос
Farsightedness?
Ответ
Distant vision is clearer, while nearby images tend to focus behind the retina and look blurred.
Карточка 126
Вопрос
Six taste qualities named in the course?
Ответ
Sweet, sour, salty, bitter, umami, and oleogustus (fat taste).
Карточка 127
Вопрос
Phantom-limb sensation?
Ответ
Feeling pain, touch, or movement in a limb that is no longer present because the nervous system still represents it.
Карточка 128
Вопрос
Sensory interaction?
Ответ
One sense changes how another is experienced, as smell influences flavor.
Карточка 129
Вопрос
What causes most color-vision deficiency?
Ответ
One or more cone types are missing or function differently, reducing discrimination among some colors.
Карточка 130
Вопрос
Prosopagnosia?
Ответ
Difficulty recognizing familiar faces despite otherwise usable vision.
Карточка 131
Вопрос
Rods?
Ответ
Retinal receptors sensitive to dim light and peripheral movement, without color detail.
Карточка 132
Вопрос
How does opponent processing explain afterimages?
Ответ
Color is coded in opposing pairs, so tiring one response can make its opponent briefly dominate.
Карточка 133
Вопрос
Conductive versus sensorineural hearing loss?
Ответ
Conductive loss blocks sound transmission; sensorineural loss damages hair cells or auditory pathways.
Карточка 134
Вопрос
Nontasters, medium tasters, and supertasters?
Ответ
Categories describing lower, typical, and unusually high sensitivity to taste, especially bitterness.
Карточка 135
Вопрос
What do the semicircular canals detect?
Ответ
Rotational head movement, helping the vestibular system maintain balance.
Карточка 136
Вопрос
Synesthesia?
Ответ
Stimulation of one sense consistently and automatically produces an additional sensory experience.
Карточка 137
Вопрос
Dichromatism versus monochromatism?
Ответ
Dichromatism uses two functioning cone systems; monochromatism uses one or none, producing far less color discrimination.
Карточка 138
Вопрос
Blindsight?
Ответ
Responding to visual information without consciously seeing it, usually after damage to primary visual cortex.
Карточка 139
Вопрос
Sensory adaptation?
Ответ
Reduced sensitivity after constant, unchanging stimulation.
Карточка 140
Вопрос
Gate-control view of pain?
Ответ
Spinal and brain processes can amplify or reduce pain signals before conscious experience.
Карточка 141
Вопрос
Bottom-up processing?
Ответ
Building a perception from incoming sensory details.
Карточка 142
Вопрос
Concept?
Ответ
A mental category used to group similar objects, events, ideas, or people.
Карточка 143
Вопрос
Fixation in problem solving?
Ответ
Getting stuck on one way of representing or solving a problem.
Карточка 144
Вопрос
Algorithm?
Ответ
A step-by-step method that guarantees a solution when followed correctly, though it may be slow.
Карточка 145
Вопрос
Top-down processing?
Ответ
Using expectations, context, and prior knowledge to interpret sensory input.
Карточка 146
Вопрос
Confirmation bias?
Ответ
Seeking or interpreting evidence in ways that support an existing belief.
Карточка 147
Вопрос
Retinal disparity?
Ответ
The difference between each eye's image; greater disparity usually signals a nearer object.
Карточка 148
Вопрос
Heuristic?
Ответ
A quick rule of thumb that saves effort but can produce errors.
Карточка 149
Вопрос
Selective attention?
Ответ
Focusing conscious awareness on one part of the available sensory input.
Карточка 150
Вопрос
Figure–ground organization?
Ответ
Separating the object of attention from its background.
Карточка 151
Вопрос
Convergence as a depth cue?
Ответ
The inward turning of the eyes increases as an object gets closer.
Карточка 152
Вопрос
Representativeness heuristic?
Ответ
Judging category membership by resemblance to a prototype while neglecting other information.
Карточка 153
Вопрос
Missing a visible event while attention is elsewhere?
Ответ
Inattentional blindness.
Карточка 154
Вопрос
Gestalt proximity principle?
Ответ
Elements close together tend to be perceived as a group.
Карточка 155
Вопрос
Two familiar objects cast different-sized retinal images. Which looks farther away?
Ответ
The one with the smaller retinal image, using the monocular cue of relative size.
Карточка 156
Вопрос
Cocktail-party effect?
Ответ
The ability to focus on one conversation while still noticing personally important information in the background.
Карточка 157
Вопрос
Failing to notice an obvious change in a scene?
Ответ
Change blindness.
Карточка 158
Вопрос
Gestalt similarity principle?
Ответ
Elements that look alike tend to be grouped together.
Карточка 159
Вопрос
Parallel lines seem to meet in the distance. Which depth cue?
Ответ
Linear perspective.
Карточка 160
Вопрос
Perceptual constancy?
Ответ
Seeing an object's size, shape, or color as stable despite changing sensory images.
Карточка 161
Вопрос
Perceptual set?
Ответ
A readiness to perceive something in a particular way because of expectations or context.
Карточка 162
Вопрос
Gestalt closure principle?
Ответ
The mind fills gaps to perceive a complete object.
Карточка 163
Вопрос
One object blocks part of another. Which seems closer?
Ответ
The blocking object, using interposition.
Карточка 164
Вопрос
Apparent motion?
Ответ
The perception of movement created by rapidly presented stationary images or lights.
Карточка 165
Вопрос
Availability heuristic?
Ответ
Judging likelihood by how easily examples come to mind.
Карточка 166
Вопрос
Divergent thinking?
Ответ
Generating many varied, original possibilities.
Карточка 167
Вопрос
A hazy object appears farther away than a sharp object. Which depth cue?
Ответ
Relative clarity.
Карточка 168
Вопрос
Prototype?
Ответ
A mental image of the most typical example of a category.
Карточка 169
Вопрос
Ignoring how common an event is while focusing on a vivid description?
Ответ
Base-rate neglect, often tied to the representativeness heuristic.
Карточка 170
Вопрос
Convergent thinking?
Ответ
Narrowing possibilities to the single best answer.
Карточка 171
Вопрос
A textured surface looks denser and finer with distance. Which depth cue?
Ответ
Texture gradient.
Карточка 172
Вопрос
Belief perseverance?
Ответ
Holding a belief even after the evidence that created it has been discredited.
Карточка 173
Вопрос
Explicit memory?
Ответ
Conscious memory for facts and experiences.
Карточка 174
Вопрос
Three stores in the multi-store model?
Ответ
Sensory memory, short-term memory, and long-term memory.
Карточка 175
Вопрос
Seeing an object only in its usual role?
Ответ
Functional fixedness.
Карточка 176
Вопрос
Mental set?
Ответ
Using a familiar solution strategy even when a different approach would work better.
Карточка 177
Вопрос
Episodic memory?
Ответ
Explicit memory for personally experienced events.
Карточка 178
Вопрос
Working memory?
Ответ
A limited-capacity system that briefly holds and actively manipulates information.
Карточка 179
Вопрос
Insight?
Ответ
A sudden realization of a problem's solution.
Карточка 180
Вопрос
Framing effect?
Ответ
Choices change when the same information is worded or presented differently.
Карточка 181
Вопрос
Implicit memory?
Ответ
Learning that affects behavior without deliberate conscious recall.
Карточка 182
Вопрос
Overconfidence bias?
Ответ
Being more certain about one's judgments than accuracy warrants.
Карточка 183
Вопрос
Anchoring bias?
Ответ
Relying too heavily on the first number or idea encountered.
Карточка 184
Вопрос
Schema in thinking?
Ответ
A mental framework that organizes knowledge and guides interpretation.
Карточка 185
Вопрос
Procedural memory?
Ответ
Implicit memory for skills and habits.
Карточка 186
Вопрос
Gambler's fallacy?
Ответ
The mistaken belief that a random outcome becomes due after a streak, even when trials are independent.
Карточка 187
Вопрос
Sunk-cost fallacy?
Ответ
Continuing because of past investment even when future costs outweigh future benefits.
Карточка 188
Вопрос
Executive functions?
Ответ
Mental processes that support planning, inhibition, flexible switching, and goal-directed control.
Карточка 189
Вопрос
How can priming affect judgment?
Ответ
Recent exposure can make related ideas more accessible and subtly shape a later response.
Карточка 190
Вопрос
Central executive in working memory?
Ответ
The attention-control component that coordinates verbal and visual-spatial processing.
Карточка 191
Вопрос
Serial-position effect?
Ответ
People tend to recall the first and last items in a list better than the middle.
Карточка 192
Вопрос
Semantic memory?
Ответ
Explicit memory for facts, meanings, and general knowledge.
Карточка 193
Вопрос
Levels-of-processing principle?
Ответ
Deeper semantic processing usually produces stronger memory than shallow structural or sound-based processing.
Карточка 194
Вопрос
Automatic processing?
Ответ
Encoding information with little conscious effort, such as space, time, or well-practiced meanings.
Карточка 195
Вопрос
Maintenance rehearsal?
Ответ
Repeating information to keep it active, usually without adding much meaning.
Карточка 196
Вопрос
Prospective memory?
Ответ
Remembering to carry out an intended action in the future.
Карточка 197
Вопрос
Primacy effect?
Ответ
Better memory for early list items, often because they receive more rehearsal.
Карточка 198
Вопрос
Long-term memory?
Ответ
A relatively durable, large-capacity store of knowledge, experiences, and skills.
Карточка 199
Вопрос
Highly superior autobiographical memory?
Ответ
An unusual ability to recall extensive personal events and dates with exceptional accuracy.
Карточка 200
Вопрос
Effortful processing?
Ответ
Encoding that requires attention and deliberate work.
Карточка 201
Вопрос
Elaborative rehearsal?
Ответ
Linking new information to meaning, examples, or existing knowledge.
Карточка 202
Вопрос
Memory consolidation?
Ответ
The process that stabilizes a memory after learning.
Карточка 203
Вопрос
Recency effect?
Ответ
Better immediate memory for the last list items because they remain active.
Карточка 204
Вопрос
Spacing effect?
Ответ
Learning lasts longer when study is distributed over time rather than massed into one session.
Карточка 205
Вопрос
Testing effect?
Ответ
Actively retrieving information improves later memory more than rereading alone.
Карточка 206
Вопрос
Chunking?
Ответ
Organizing separate pieces of information into meaningful units.
Карточка 207
Вопрос
Mnemonic?
Ответ
A structured memory aid that links material to an image, phrase, location, or pattern.
Карточка 208
Вопрос
Why organize material into a hierarchy?
Ответ
Grouping broad ideas above narrower details makes relationships easier to encode and retrieve.
Карточка 209
Вопрос
How can a schema help encoding?
Ответ
It supplies an existing framework that organizes and connects new information.
Карточка 210
Вопрос
Students reread or practice retrieval, then take the same delayed test. What are the independent and dependent variables?
Ответ
The study method is independent; delayed-test performance is dependent.
Карточка 211
Вопрос
Iconic memory?
Ответ
A very brief visual sensory memory.
Карточка 212
Вопрос
Recall?
Ответ
Retrieving information with few external cues, as in an essay question.
Карточка 213
Вопрос
Retrieval cue?
Ответ
A stimulus linked to a memory that helps bring it to awareness.
Карточка 214
Вопрос
Encoding-specificity principle?
Ответ
Retrieval improves when cues at recall match cues present during encoding.
Карточка 215
Вопрос
Context-dependent memory?
Ответ
Recall can improve in the same external environment where learning occurred.
Карточка 216
Вопрос
Does the hippocampus permanently store every explicit memory?
Ответ
No. It helps form and consolidate new explicit memories, which later depend on distributed cortical networks.
Карточка 217
Вопрос
Echoic memory?
Ответ
A brief auditory sensory memory that lasts longer than iconic memory.
Карточка 218
Вопрос
Anterograde amnesia?
Ответ
Difficulty forming new long-term explicit memories after the onset of damage or illness.
Карточка 219
Вопрос
Phonological loop?
Ответ
The working-memory component that briefly holds and rehearses verbal or sound information.
Карточка 220
Вопрос
Cerebellum's memory role?
Ответ
It supports procedural learning and some classically conditioned responses.
Карточка 221
Вопрос
Why is short-term memory described as limited?
Ответ
It can hold only a small amount of information without rehearsal or chunking.
Карточка 222
Вопрос
Retrograde amnesia?
Ответ
Loss of memories formed before the onset of damage or illness.
Карточка 223
Вопрос
Why are events tied to your own life often easier to remember?
Ответ
The self-reference effect makes information connected to oneself more memorable.
Карточка 224
Вопрос
How can the amygdala affect memory?
Ответ
Emotional arousal can strengthen consolidation of emotionally significant events.
Карточка 225
Вопрос
Visuospatial sketchpad?
Ответ
The working-memory component that holds and manipulates visual and spatial information.
Карточка 226
Вопрос
Long-term potentiation?
Ответ
A lasting increase in synaptic efficiency after repeated activation, associated with learning and memory.
Карточка 227
Вопрос
Infantile amnesia?
Ответ
The typical inability to recall autobiographical events from the first few years of life.
Карточка 228
Вопрос
Alzheimer's disease?
Ответ
A progressive brain disorder that gradually impairs memory, reasoning, and daily functioning.
Карточка 229
Вопрос
Scores are 2, 4, 4, 7, 9. What are the mode and range?
Ответ
The mode is 4, and the range is 7 because 9 - 2 = 7.
Карточка 230
Вопрос
Recognition?
Ответ
Identifying previously learned information, as in selecting a familiar answer.
Карточка 231
Вопрос
Why is memory called reconstructive?
Ответ
Recall rebuilds an event from stored details, schemas, expectations, and later information.
Карточка 232
Вопрос
Storage decay?
Ответ
A memory trace weakens over time, especially when it isn't used.
Карточка 233
Вопрос
State-dependent memory?
Ответ
Recall can improve when a person's internal state matches the state during learning.
Карточка 234
Вопрос
Relearning?
Ответ
Measuring memory by how much faster material is learned again.
Карточка 235
Вопрос
Misinformation effect?
Ответ
Misleading information after an event changes memory of the event.
Карточка 236
Вопрос
A student recalls more in the original classroom. What claim is supported?
Ответ
Matching environmental cues can aid retrieval; the setting didn't necessarily improve storage.
Карточка 237
Вопрос
Mood-congruent memory?
Ответ
A current mood makes similarly toned memories easier to retrieve.
Карточка 238
Вопрос
Priming?
Ответ
Exposure to one stimulus unconsciously influences the response to a later stimulus.
Карточка 239
Вопрос
Tip-of-the-tongue state?
Ответ
A temporary retrieval failure accompanied by a feeling that the answer is known.
Карточка 240
Вопрос
Why does retrieval practice strengthen memory?
Ответ
Each successful retrieval reinforces access routes and reveals what still needs study.
Карточка 241
Вопрос
Class A scores cluster near 80; Class B has the same mean but scores spread from 50 to 100. Which class has the larger standard deviation?
Ответ
Class B, because its scores vary farther from the mean.
Карточка 242
Вопрос
Metacognition?
Ответ
Monitoring and regulating one's own thinking and learning.
Карточка 243
Вопрос
Source amnesia?
Ответ
Remembering information but misremembering where it came from.
Карточка 244
Вопрос
Test standardization?
Ответ
Administering a test consistently and establishing norms from a representative sample.
Карточка 245
Вопрос
Reliability?
Ответ
The consistency of a measurement across time, items, or scorers.
Карточка 246
Вопрос
Stereotype threat?
Ответ
Concern about confirming a negative group stereotype can interfere with performance.
Карточка 247
Вопрос
General intelligence, or g?
Ответ
A broad mental ability proposed to contribute to performance across many cognitive tasks.
Карточка 248
Вопрос
Encoding failure?
Ответ
Information never entered memory well enough to be stored, often because attention was weak.
Карточка 249
Вопрос
Validity?
Ответ
The extent to which evidence supports the interpretation and use of a test score.
Карточка 250
Вопрос
Proactive interference?
Ответ
Older learning disrupts recall of newer information.
Карточка 251
Вопрос
Imagination inflation?
Ответ
Repeatedly imagining an event increases confidence that it really happened.
Карточка 252
Вопрос
A forgetting curve drops sharply soon after learning, then flattens. What does this pattern show?
Ответ
Forgetting is fastest soon after learning and slows over time.
Карточка 253
Вопрос
Retrieval failure?
Ответ
Stored information is temporarily inaccessible because effective cues are missing.
Карточка 254
Вопрос
Retroactive interference?
Ответ
Newer learning disrupts recall of older information.
Карточка 255
Вопрос
A confident witness recalls a detail introduced after the event. Best conclusion?
Ответ
Confidence doesn't guarantee accuracy; post-event misinformation may have altered the memory.
Карточка 256
Вопрос
Repression in psychodynamic theory?
Ответ
The proposed unconscious blocking of distressing memories or impulses from awareness.
Карточка 257
Вопрос
Flashbulb memory?
Ответ
A vivid memory for learning about an emotional event; confidence can remain high even when details change.
Карточка 258
Вопрос
A study defines memory accuracy as the number of 20 words recalled after 24 hours. What design element is this?
Ответ
An operational definition of memory accuracy.
Карточка 259
Вопрос
A score is at the 84th percentile. What does that mean?
Ответ
It is equal to or higher than about 84% of scores in the reference group.
Карточка 260
Вопрос
Stereotype lift?
Ответ
A performance boost that can occur when a negative stereotype targets another group, making one's own group seem comparatively advantaged.
Карточка 261
Вопрос
Achievement test?
Ответ
An assessment of knowledge or skills already learned.
Карточка 262
Вопрос
Construct validity?
Ответ
How well evidence shows that a test measures the psychological construct it claims to measure.
Карточка 263
Вопрос
Test–retest reliability?
Ответ
Consistency of scores when the same assessment is administered to the same people at different times.
Карточка 264
Вопрос
Why can't historical group differences on intelligence tests justify discriminatory policy?
Ответ
Scores reflect testing conditions and social opportunity as well as measured ability; group averages don't define individuals or prove biological causation.
Карточка 265
Вопрос
Multiple-abilities view of intelligence?
Ответ
Intelligence includes several partly distinct abilities rather than one general capacity alone.
Карточка 266
Вопрос
Aptitude test?
Ответ
An assessment intended to predict capacity to learn or perform in the future.
Карточка 267
Вопрос
Traditional IQ formula?
Ответ
Mental age divided by chronological age, multiplied by 100. Modern tests use age-based norms instead.
Карточка 268
Вопрос
Predictive validity?
Ответ
How well a test score forecasts a relevant later outcome.
Карточка 269
Вопрос
What does a normal score distribution look like?
Ответ
Most scores cluster near the mean, with fewer scores toward either extreme.
Карточка 270
Вопрос
Split-half reliability?
Ответ
Consistency between two comparable halves of the same assessment.
Карточка 271
Вопрос
Two groups have different average test scores. What conclusion is not justified?
Ответ
That every member differs or that biology caused the gap; within-group variation and social conditions matter.
Карточка 272
Вопрос
Flynn effect?
Ответ
Average intelligence-test scores have risen across generations in many populations, pointing to environmental influence.
Карточка 273
Вопрос
A student treats mistakes as information and changes study strategies. Which mindset does this show?
Ответ
A growth mindset; a fixed mindset treats ability as largely unchangeable.
Карточка 274
Вопрос
Continuous versus stage development?
Ответ
Continuous views emphasize gradual change; stage views describe distinct qualitative shifts.
Карточка 275
Вопрос
How can prenatal environment affect later development?
Ответ
Nutrition, stress, illness, and substance exposure can influence physical and neural development before birth.
Карточка 276
Вопрос
Teratogen?
Ответ
An environmental agent that can disrupt prenatal development, with effects depending on dose, timing, and susceptibility.
Карточка 277
Вопрос
Maturation?
Ответ
Biologically guided growth processes that unfold in a generally predictable sequence.
Карточка 278
Вопрос
Stability–change question in development?
Ответ
It asks which traits persist across life and which change with age or experience.
Карточка 279
Вопрос
A researcher predicts that students who sleep at least eight hours will recall more words than students who sleep less. Why is this hypothesis falsifiable?
Ответ
The groups and recall outcome can be measured, so evidence could show that the predicted difference does not occur.
Карточка 280
Вопрос
Which method best tests whether a new study routine causes higher quiz scores?
Ответ
An experiment that manipulates the routine and randomly assigns participants, because it can support a causal conclusion.
Карточка 281
Вопрос
Why do motor milestones follow a common order but different timing?
Ответ
Maturation shapes the sequence, while biology and experience influence pace.
Карточка 282
Вопрос
Fine versus gross motor skills?
Ответ
Fine skills use small, precise movements; gross skills use larger muscle groups and whole-body movement.
Карточка 283
Вопрос
Why are infant reflexes useful to researchers?
Ответ
Their presence and change can indicate early nervous-system development.
Карточка 284
Вопрос
What did the visual-cliff procedure test?
Ответ
It tested whether infants would cross an apparent drop, providing evidence about depth perception and the influence of locomotor experience.
Карточка 285
Вопрос
Puberty?
Ответ
The period of sexual maturation driven by hormonal and physical changes.
Карточка 286
Вопрос
Sensitive period?
Ответ
A developmental window when experience has an especially strong effect, though learning may remain possible later.
Карточка 287
Вопрос
What physical pattern commonly marks the start of adolescence?
Ответ
A puberty-related growth spurt, with rapid increases in height and weight.
Карточка 288
Вопрос
Primary versus secondary sex characteristics?
Ответ
Primary characteristics are reproductive organs and functions; secondary characteristics are puberty-related traits not directly required for reproduction.
Карточка 289
Вопрос
Which method best measures the relationship between adolescents' sleep duration and mood without assigning sleep schedules?
Ответ
A correlational study, because both variables are measured rather than manipulated.
Карточка 290
Вопрос
Older adults score lower than younger adults in one same-time comparison. Which design and alternative explanation limit an aging claim?
Ответ
The study is cross-sectional, and a cohort effect could explain the difference because the age groups grew up under different conditions.
Карточка 291
Вопрос
Researchers test the same people yearly from ages 10 to 20. Which design is this, and what participant-loss risk should they track?
Ответ
A longitudinal design; attrition can bias the results if those who leave differ from those who remain.
Карточка 292
Вопрос
Menarche?
Ответ
The first menstrual period.
Карточка 293
Вопрос
Which method allows an intensive investigation of one person with an exceptionally rare developmental condition?
Ответ
A case study, which provides depth but may not generalize to a wider population.
Карточка 294
Вопрос
About what percentage of scores in a normal distribution lie within one standard deviation of the mean?
Ответ
About 68%.
Карточка 295
Вопрос
A prenatal exposure correlates with later difficulty. What limits a causal claim?
Ответ
Other parental, health, and environmental variables may account for the association.
Карточка 296
Вопрос
Spermarche?
Ответ
The first ejaculation.
Карточка 297
Вопрос
Which method combines results from many studies to estimate an overall effect?
Ответ
A meta-analysis, which statistically synthesizes findings across studies.
Карточка 298
Вопрос
Imprinting?
Ответ
A rapid form of early learning in which some young animals form an attachment during a sensitive period.
Карточка 299
Вопрос
Why can adolescent risk-taking increase?
Ответ
Reward systems develop earlier than the prefrontal control systems used for planning and inhibition.
Карточка 300
Вопрос
Menopause?
Ответ
The natural end of menstrual cycles, diagnosed after 12 consecutive months without menstruation.
Карточка 301
Вопрос
Which method records children's playground behavior without directing or changing it?
Ответ
Naturalistic observation.
Карточка 302
Вопрос
How do mobility, flexibility, and reaction time typically change across later adulthood?
Ответ
They tend to decline gradually, although health, activity, and individual differences affect the pace.
Карточка 303
Вопрос
Gender identity?
Ответ
A person's internal sense of their gender.
Карточка 304
Вопрос
Gender role?
Ответ
A culture's expectations for behavior associated with gender.
Карточка 305
Вопрос
Sex versus gender?
Ответ
Sex refers to biological traits; gender refers to identities, roles, and social meanings.
Карточка 306
Вопрос
Common sensory change in later adulthood?
Ответ
Vision and hearing sensitivity often decline, though the degree varies widely.
Карточка 307
Вопрос
Sexual orientation?
Ответ
A pattern of romantic or sexual attraction; it is distinct from gender identity.
Карточка 308
Вопрос
Gender schema?
Ответ
A mental framework that organizes information and expectations about gender.
Карточка 309
Вопрос
Best broad view of gender development?
Ответ
Biological, cognitive, social, and cultural influences interact.
Карточка 310
Вопрос
Does normal aging cause uniform cognitive decline?
Ответ
No. Processing speed may slow, while knowledge and expertise can remain stable or grow.
Карточка 311
Вопрос
Why shouldn't variation in gender identity or sexual orientation be treated as a disorder?
Ответ
Variation alone isn't evidence of dysfunction; distress often reflects stigma or discrimination rather than identity.
Карточка 312
Вопрос
Schema in cognitive development?
Ответ
A mental framework used to organize and interpret experience.
Карточка 313
Вопрос
Sensorimotor stage?
Ответ
Infants learn through sensory experience and action and develop object permanence.
Карточка 314
Вопрос
Preoperational stage?
Ответ
Young children use symbols and language but often lack conservation and show egocentric thinking.
Карточка 315
Вопрос
Assimilation?
Ответ
Fitting new information into an existing schema.
Карточка 316
Вопрос
A learner cannot solve a puzzle alone but succeeds with a teacher's hints. Where is the task?
Ответ
In the learner's zone of proximal development.
Карточка 317
Вопрос
Animism in preoperational thought?
Ответ
Attributing life, feelings, or intentions to inanimate objects.
Карточка 318
Вопрос
Concrete operational stage?
Ответ
Children reason logically about concrete events and understand conservation.
Карточка 319
Вопрос
Accommodation?
Ответ
Changing a schema when new information doesn't fit it.
Карточка 320
Вопрос
Reversibility in cognitive development?
Ответ
Understanding that an operation can be mentally undone, a skill associated with concrete operational thought.
Карточка 321
Вопрос
How can social learning shape gender expression?
Ответ
People observe models and receive reinforcement or punishment for gender-related behavior.
Карточка 322
Вопрос
A child calls a zebra a horse because it fits an existing animal schema. Which process?
Ответ
Assimilation.
Карточка 323
Вопрос
Language?
Ответ
A shared, rule-governed system of symbols used to communicate and generate ideas.
Карточка 324
Вопрос
Cooing stage?
Ответ
Early vowel-like sounds that typically appear before babbling.
Карточка 325
Вопрос
Babbling stage?
Ответ
Infants produce repeated speech-like sounds before meaningful words.
Карточка 326
Вопрос
One-word stage?
Ответ
A child uses single words to express whole ideas.
Карточка 327
Вопрос
Grammar?
Ответ
A language's system of rules for combining and interpreting symbols.
Карточка 328
Вопрос
A child assumes everyone can see the picture visible only from the child's side of a model. Which limitation does this show?
Ответ
Egocentrism: difficulty taking another person's visual perspective.
Карточка 329
Вопрос
Crystallized intelligence across adulthood?
Ответ
Accumulated knowledge and verbal skills often remain stable or increase.
Карточка 330
Вопрос
A child revises an animal schema after learning that zebras aren't horses. Which process?
Ответ
Accommodation.
Карточка 331
Вопрос
A teacher first models each step, then removes hints as the learner improves. What support strategy is this?
Ответ
Scaffolding.
Карточка 332
Вопрос
A child predicts that someone will search where that person last saw a toy, not where the toy really is. Which ability does this show?
Ответ
Theory of mind: recognizing that another person can hold a different belief.
Карточка 333
Вопрос
Fluid intelligence across adulthood?
Ответ
Speedy reasoning with novel problems often peaks earlier and may decline gradually.
Карточка 334
Вопрос
An infant searches for a toy after it is covered by a cloth. Which ability does this show?
Ответ
Object permanence: understanding that the toy still exists when it cannot be seen.
Карточка 335
Вопрос
Water is poured from a short glass into a taller, narrower glass, and a child says there is more water. Which concept is missing?
Ответ
Conservation: understanding that quantity remains the same despite a change in appearance.
Карточка 336
Вопрос
Formal operational stage?
Ответ
Adolescents and adults can reason abstractly and test hypothetical possibilities.
Карточка 337
Вопрос
Dementia?
Ответ
A broad syndrome involving cognitive decline that interferes with daily life; it is not an inevitable part of normal aging.
Карточка 338
Вопрос
Phoneme?
Ответ
The smallest distinctive sound unit in a language.
Карточка 339
Вопрос
Bronfenbrenner's ecological systems view?
Ответ
Development reflects interactions between a person and nested social environments over time.
Карточка 340
Вопрос
Temperament?
Ответ
Early, biologically influenced patterns of emotional reactivity and self-regulation.
Карточка 341
Вопрос
Attachment?
Ответ
An enduring emotional bond that supports proximity and security.
Карточка 342
Вопрос
Erikson's infancy conflict?
Ответ
Trust versus mistrust: dependable care supports a basic sense of security.
Карточка 343
Вопрос
Microsystem?
Ответ
Immediate settings and relationships, such as family, school, peers, and work.
Карточка 344
Вопрос
Erikson's toddler conflict?
Ответ
Autonomy versus shame and doubt: supported self-control builds independence.
Карточка 345
Вопрос
Erikson's early-childhood conflict?
Ответ
Initiative versus guilt: directing activities and plans supports purpose.
Карточка 346
Вопрос
Erikson's school-age conflict?
Ответ
Industry versus inferiority: mastering valued skills supports competence.
Карточка 347
Вопрос
Mesosystem?
Ответ
Connections among a person's microsystems, such as communication between family and school.
Карточка 348
Вопрос
Erikson's adolescent conflict?
Ответ
Identity versus role confusion: exploring and integrating roles supports identity.
Карточка 349
Вопрос
Erikson's young-adult conflict?
Ответ
Intimacy versus isolation: forming close, committed relationships.
Карточка 350
Вопрос
Erikson's middle-adult conflict?
Ответ
Generativity versus stagnation: contributing to others and the next generation.
Карточка 351
Вопрос
Exosystem?
Ответ
Settings that affect a person indirectly, such as a caregiver's workplace.
Карточка 352
Вопрос
Morpheme?
Ответ
The smallest unit that carries meaning.
Карточка 353
Вопрос
Telegraphic speech?
Ответ
Early short phrases that contain essential words while omitting smaller grammatical words.
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Карточка 354
Вопрос
How do nonverbal gestures support language development?
Ответ
Pointing, gaze, expression, and movement communicate meaning before and alongside spoken words.
Карточка 355
Вопрос
Macrosystem?
Ответ
The wider culture, values, laws, customs, and economic conditions surrounding development.
Карточка 356
Вопрос
Semantics?
Ответ
The meanings of words and sentences.
Карточка 357
Вопрос
A child says “goed” after learning the usual past-tense pattern. What is this?
Ответ
Overgeneralization: applying a language rule where an exception is required.
Карточка 358
Вопрос
What does a sensitive period for language imply?
Ответ
Early exposure supports fluent development, though later learning remains possible.
Карточка 359
Вопрос
Does language completely determine thought?
Ответ
No. Language can shape attention and categorization, but thought also occurs without words.
Карточка 360
Вопрос
Syntax?
Ответ
Rules for arranging words into phrases and sentences.
Карточка 361
Вопрос
A child explores while a caregiver is present, seeks contact at reunion, and is readily comforted. Which attachment pattern fits?
Ответ
Secure attachment.
Карточка 362
Вопрос
How does the behavioral perspective explain behavior?
Ответ
It focuses on observable behavior learned through conditioning, reinforcement, punishment, and environmental cues.
Карточка 363
Вопрос
Authoritative parenting?
Ответ
High warmth with clear, consistent expectations and age-appropriate autonomy.
Карточка 364
Вопрос
Identity achievement?
Ответ
A person makes commitments after meaningful exploration.
Карточка 365
Вопрос
Avoidant attachment pattern?
Ответ
The child shows little contact-seeking and tends to avoid or ignore the caregiver at reunion.
Карточка 366
Вопрос
Classical conditioning?
Ответ
Learning that one stimulus predicts another, so a previously neutral stimulus elicits a response.
Карточка 367
Вопрос
Unconditioned stimulus?
Ответ
A stimulus that naturally produces a response without prior learning.
Карточка 368
Вопрос
Unconditioned response?
Ответ
The unlearned response naturally produced by an unconditioned stimulus.
Карточка 369
Вопрос
Conditioned stimulus?
Ответ
A previously neutral stimulus that elicits a learned response after association.
Карточка 370
Вопрос
Conditioned response?
Ответ
The learned response to a conditioned stimulus.
Карточка 371
Вопрос
Acquisition in classical conditioning?
Ответ
The initial learning period when the neutral stimulus becomes associated with the unconditioned stimulus.
Карточка 372
Вопрос
During acquisition, when should the conditioned stimulus usually appear relative to the unconditioned stimulus?
Ответ
The conditioned stimulus should appear shortly before the unconditioned stimulus so it predicts what comes next.
Карточка 373
Вопрос
Authoritarian parenting?
Ответ
Low warmth with strict control and little discussion.
Карточка 374
Вопрос
Identity diffusion?
Ответ
A person has neither actively explored alternatives nor made firm commitments.
Карточка 375
Вопрос
Extinction in classical conditioning?
Ответ
The conditioned response weakens when the conditioned stimulus repeatedly appears without the unconditioned stimulus.
Карточка 376
Вопрос
Anxious-resistant attachment pattern?
Ответ
The child seeks contact but remains distressed or resists comfort at reunion.
Карточка 377
Вопрос
Permissive parenting?
Ответ
High warmth with few demands or limits.
Карточка 378
Вопрос
Parallel play?
Ответ
Young children play beside one another with similar materials but little direct coordination.
Карточка 379
Вопрос
Imaginary audience?
Ответ
An adolescent's belief that other people are constantly noticing and evaluating them.
Карточка 380
Вопрос
Identity foreclosure?
Ответ
A person commits without exploring alternatives, often adopting others' expectations.
Карточка 381
Вопрос
Disorganized attachment pattern?
Ответ
The child shows contradictory, confused, or fearful behavior without a consistent reunion strategy.
Карточка 382
Вопрос
Neglectful parenting?
Ответ
Low warmth and low control or involvement.
Карточка 383
Вопрос
Chronosystem?
Ответ
Life transitions and historical changes that alter development over time.
Карточка 384
Вопрос
Why is pretend play developmentally useful?
Ответ
It lets children practice symbols, roles, perspective-taking, and social rules.
Карточка 385
Вопрос
Personal fable?
Ответ
An adolescent's sense that their experiences are unique and that ordinary risks may not apply to them.
Карточка 386
Вопрос
Identity moratorium?
Ответ
A person is actively exploring alternatives without yet making a stable commitment.
Карточка 387
Вопрос
Best claim about adverse childhood experiences?
Ответ
They can raise later health and relationship risks, but they don't determine an individual's outcome.
Карточка 388
Вопрос
Separation anxiety in infancy?
Ответ
Distress when a familiar caregiver leaves; it is common during part of typical development.
Карточка 389
Вопрос
What did infant-monkey research suggest about attachment?
Ответ
Comforting physical contact can be a stronger attachment cue than food alone.
Карточка 390
Вопрос
Which research method does the Strange Situation use to assess attachment behavior?
Ответ
Structured observation: researchers record behavior during standardized separations and reunions.
Карточка 391
Вопрос
Emerging adulthood?
Ответ
A transitional period, often from the late teens through the twenties, marked by identity exploration and changing roles.
Карточка 392
Вопрос
Social clock?
Ответ
Culturally shaped expectations about when major life events should occur.
Карточка 393
Вопрос
Erikson's later-adult conflict?
Ответ
Integrity versus despair: evaluating life with acceptance rather than regret.
Карточка 394
Вопрос
Possible selves?
Ответ
Mental images of who a person might become, hopes to become, or fears becoming.
Карточка 395
Вопрос
Stimulus generalization?
Ответ
Stimuli similar to the conditioned stimulus also trigger the conditioned response.
Карточка 396
Вопрос
Operant conditioning?
Ответ
Learning in which consequences change the future frequency of voluntary behavior.
Карточка 397
Вопрос
Law of effect?
Ответ
Behaviors followed by satisfying consequences become more likely, while behaviors followed by unpleasant consequences become less likely.
Карточка 398
Вопрос
Spontaneous recovery?
Ответ
An extinguished conditioned response briefly returns after a rest period.
Карточка 399
Вопрос
Stimulus discrimination?
Ответ
Learning to respond differently to the conditioned stimulus and similar stimuli.
Карточка 400
Вопрос
Reinforcement?
Ответ
Any consequence that increases a behavior.
Карточка 401
Вопрос
Higher-order conditioning?
Ответ
An established conditioned stimulus helps a new neutral stimulus become conditioned without direct pairing with the original unconditioned stimulus.
Карточка 402
Вопрос
Counterconditioning?
Ответ
Replacing an unwanted conditioned response by pairing the trigger with a new, incompatible response.
Карточка 403
Вопрос
Habituation?
Ответ
A reduced response after repeated exposure to a harmless, unchanged stimulus.
Карточка 404
Вопрос
Punishment?
Ответ
Any consequence that decreases a behavior.
Карточка 405
Вопрос
Partial reinforcement?
Ответ
Reinforcing only some responses; learning is slower, but behavior resists extinction.
Карточка 406
Вопрос
Why can taste aversion form after one delayed pairing?
Ответ
Biological preparedness makes certain food–illness associations especially easy to learn.
Карточка 407
Вопрос
Most conditioning trials take 2–6 attempts, but one participant needs 24. What shape will the trial-count distribution likely have?
Ответ
It will be right-skewed because the unusually high value stretches the upper tail.
Карточка 408
Вопрос
Participants may encounter distressing images in a learning study. What must an institutional review board evaluate before approval?
Ответ
Whether the scientific value justifies the risks and whether safeguards reduce those risks to an acceptable level.
Карточка 409
Вопрос
Fixed-ratio schedule?
Ответ
Reinforcement follows a set number of responses.
Карточка 410
Вопрос
Observational learning?
Ответ
Learning by watching others and the consequences they receive.
Карточка 411
Вопрос
A teacher adds praise after completed homework, and homework completion increases. Which consequence is this?
Ответ
Positive reinforcement.
Карточка 412
Вопрос
Primary reinforcer?
Ответ
A naturally rewarding stimulus tied to biological needs, such as food when hungry.
Карточка 413
Вопрос
Variable-ratio schedule?
Ответ
Reinforcement follows an unpredictable number of responses, producing persistent responding.
Карточка 414
Вопрос
Modeling?
Ответ
Performing a behavior after observing it in another person.
Карточка 415
Вопрос
Which response pattern is typical of a fixed-ratio schedule?
Ответ
A high response rate followed by a brief pause after each reward.
Карточка 416
Вопрос
Fastening a seat belt stops an unpleasant alarm, making future fastening more likely. Which consequence is this?
Ответ
Negative reinforcement.
Карточка 417
Вопрос
Conditioned reinforcer?
Ответ
A learned reward that gains value through association, such as money or praise.
Карточка 418
Вопрос
A child sees a classmate praised for sharing and then shares more often. Which process may explain the change?
Ответ
Vicarious reinforcement.
Карточка 419
Вопрос
Fixed-interval schedule?
Ответ
The first response after a set amount of time is reinforced.
Карточка 420
Вопрос
Which response pattern is typical of a variable-ratio schedule?
Ответ
A high, steady response rate with little or no pause after rewards.
Карточка 421
Вопрос
A driver receives a fine, and speeding decreases. Which consequence is this?
Ответ
Positive punishment.
Карточка 422
Вопрос
Shaping?
Ответ
Reinforcing successive approximations toward a target behavior.
Карточка 423
Вопрос
Extinction in operant conditioning?
Ответ
A behavior weakens when it no longer produces reinforcement.
Карточка 424
Вопрос
Variable-interval schedule?
Ответ
The first response after an unpredictable amount of time is reinforced.
Карточка 425
Вопрос
A teenager loses gaming access, and missed curfews decrease. Which consequence is this?
Ответ
Negative punishment.
Карточка 426
Вопрос
Learned helplessness?
Ответ
After repeated uncontrollable negative events, a person or animal stops trying to escape even when escape becomes possible.
Карточка 427
Вопрос
Continuous reinforcement?
Ответ
Reinforcing every occurrence of a behavior; learning is fast, but extinction is also fast.
Карточка 428
Вопрос
A response record rises slowly after each reward, then accelerates as the next fixed time approaches. Which schedule produced this scalloped pattern?
Ответ
A fixed-interval schedule.
Карточка 429
Вопрос
Discriminative stimulus?
Ответ
A cue that signals when a particular response is likely to be reinforced.
Карточка 430
Вопрос
Operant generalization versus discrimination?
Ответ
Generalization spreads a learned response to similar cues; discrimination limits it to cues that signal reinforcement.
Карточка 431
Вопрос
Instinctive drift?
Ответ
A learned behavior shifts toward an animal's biologically predisposed behavior.
Карточка 432
Вопрос
Which response pattern is typical of a variable-interval schedule?
Ответ
A steady, moderate response rate because reinforcement can become available at unpredictable times.
Карточка 433
Вопрос
How can superstitious behavior develop through operant conditioning?
Ответ
A coincidental reward can reinforce a behavior that didn't actually cause the outcome.
Карточка 434
Вопрос
How does similarity to a model affect observational learning?
Ответ
Observers are often more likely to attend to and imitate models they see as similar or relevant.
Карточка 435
Вопрос
Vicarious conditioning?
Ответ
Learning an emotional response by observing another person's reaction to a stimulus.
Карточка 436
Вопрос
A rat makes 12, 13, 11, and 12 responses in four equal time blocks, with rewards delivered at unpredictable times. Which schedule best fits this steady pattern?
Ответ
A variable-interval schedule.
Карточка 437
Вопрос
Children imitate a rewarded model more than a punished model. Supported claim?
Ответ
Observed consequences can influence whether learned behavior is performed.
Карточка 438
Вопрос
Why randomly assign children to watch either an aggressive or a calm model?
Ответ
Random assignment helps balance preexisting differences between groups, strengthening a causal inference about the model's effect.
Карточка 439
Вопрос
Latent learning?
Ответ
Learning that occurs without obvious reinforcement and appears later when there is an incentive.
Карточка 440
Вопрос
Cognitive map?
Ответ
A mental representation of the layout of an environment.
Карточка 441
Вопрос
Insight learning?
Ответ
A sudden cognitive solution without visible trial-and-error steps.
Карточка 442
Вопрос
Biological preparedness?
Ответ
An evolved readiness to learn some associations more easily than others.
Карточка 443
Вопрос
What can mirror-neuron activity show?
Ответ
Some neural systems respond during both action and observation, though this alone doesn't explain all imitation or empathy.
Карточка 444
Вопрос
Attribution?
Ответ
An explanation for the cause of a person's behavior or an event.
Карточка 445
Вопрос
Attitude?
Ответ
An evaluation of a person, object, issue, or behavior, involving beliefs, feelings, and action tendencies.
Карточка 446
Вопрос
Upward social comparison?
Ответ
Comparing oneself with someone doing better, which can inspire improvement or reduce satisfaction.
Карточка 447
Вопрос
Optimistic explanatory style?
Ответ
Explaining setbacks as temporary, specific, and changeable rather than permanent and global.
Карточка 448
Вопрос
Situational attribution?
Ответ
Explaining behavior through external circumstances or social context.
Карточка 449
Вопрос
A person who values health keeps vaping and feels pressure to change either the behavior or the belief. What is this discomfort?
Ответ
Cognitive dissonance.
Карточка 450
Вопрос
Downward social comparison?
Ответ
Comparing oneself with someone doing worse, which can protect self-evaluation.
Карточка 451
Вопрос
Internal locus of control?
Ответ
The belief that one's actions strongly influence outcomes.
Карточка 452
Вопрос
Dispositional attribution?
Ответ
Explaining behavior through internal traits, motives, or abilities.
Карточка 453
Вопрос
Pessimistic explanatory style?
Ответ
Explaining setbacks as lasting, widespread, and rooted in personal failure.
Карточка 454
Вопрос
Relative deprivation?
Ответ
Feeling disadvantaged by comparing one's situation with the situation one believes others have.
Карточка 455
Вопрос
External locus of control?
Ответ
The belief that outcomes mainly depend on luck, fate, or powerful outside forces.
Карточка 456
Вопрос
Fundamental attribution error?
Ответ
Overestimating personality and underestimating the situation when explaining someone else's behavior.
Карточка 457
Вопрос
Halo effect?
Ответ
One favorable trait shapes an overly positive overall judgment of a person.
Карточка 458
Вопрос
Self-fulfilling prophecy?
Ответ
An expectation changes behavior in ways that help make the expected outcome occur.
Карточка 459
Вопрос
Mere-exposure effect?
Ответ
Repeated exposure to a neutral stimulus can increase liking.
Карточка 460
Вопрос
A person blames their own lateness on traffic but another person's lateness on carelessness. Which attribution pattern is this?
Ответ
The actor–observer difference.
Карточка 461
Вопрос
A voter compares evidence and checks the logic of a policy argument. Which persuasion route is being used?
Ответ
The central route.
Карточка 462
Вопрос
Effort justification?
Ответ
Valuing an outcome more after investing substantial effort in it, which reduces dissonance.
Карточка 463
Вопрос
Stereotype?
Ответ
A generalized belief about members of a group.
Карточка 464
Вопрос
A student credits skill for an A but blames an unfair test for an F. Which bias does this show?
Ответ
Self-serving bias.
Карточка 465
Вопрос
A shopper favors an unfamiliar product because a popular celebrity endorses it. Which persuasion route is being used?
Ответ
The peripheral route.
Карточка 466
Вопрос
Someone praises a dull task for a tiny reward, then reports liking it more. Which dissonance principle fits?
Ответ
Insufficient justification: the small reward provides too little external explanation, so attitude change reduces dissonance.
Карточка 467
Вопрос
Prejudice?
Ответ
An unjustified attitude or emotional response toward a group and its members.
Карточка 468
Вопрос
The same 40 workers complete equal-length tasks under both workloads:

Workload Errors

Low 2

High 8

Which attribution is better supported?
Ответ
A situational attribution is better supported: with the same workers and equal exposure, the high-workload condition has more errors, though the table alone doesn't prove causation.
Карточка 469
Вопрос
Why does source credibility affect persuasion?
Ответ
People are more likely to accept a message from a source seen as knowledgeable and trustworthy.
Карточка 470
Вопрос
Conformity?
Ответ
Adjusting behavior or beliefs to match a group.
Карточка 471
Вопрос
Several witnesses each wait for someone else to help during an emergency. Which effect is this?
Ответ
The bystander effect.
Карточка 472
Вопрос
Diffusion of responsibility?
Ответ
Each person feels less personally responsible when others are available to act.
Карточка 473
Вопрос
How can taking on a role affect attitude?
Ответ
Repeated role-consistent behavior can gradually shift beliefs and self-perception.
Карточка 474
Вопрос
In-group bias?
Ответ
Favoring one's own group over other groups.
Карточка 475
Вопрос
After agreeing to display a small safety sticker, a resident later agrees to place a large sign. Which technique is this?
Ответ
The foot-in-the-door technique.
Карточка 476
Вопрос
A researcher recruits the first 60 students leaving one school cafeteria. What sampling method is this, and what is the main limit?
Ответ
Convenience sampling; the sample may not represent the school's students or a broader population as well as a random sample would.
Карточка 477
Вопрос
When do attitudes best predict behavior?
Ответ
When the attitude is specific, accessible, personally important, and social pressure is limited.
Карточка 478
Вопрос
Discrimination?
Ответ
Unjustified behavior toward people because of group membership.
Карточка 479
Вопрос
Out-group homogeneity effect?
Ответ
Perceiving members of another group as more alike than members of one's own group.
Карточка 480
Вопрос
After refusing an extreme request, a person agrees to a smaller related request. Which technique is this?
Ответ
The door-in-the-face technique.
Карточка 481
Вопрос
A study finds r = +0.72 between attention to message evidence and attitude change. What does the coefficient show?
Ответ
A strong positive association: greater attention tends to accompany greater attitude change, but the correlation does not establish causation.
Карточка 482
Вопрос
Persuasion ratings cluster near 2 and 9 on a 10-point scale, with few scores near 5. What distribution shape does this suggest?
Ответ
A bimodal distribution, with two distinct peaks.
Карточка 483
Вопрос
Just-world belief?
Ответ
The assumption that people generally get what they deserve, which can encourage victim blaming.
Карточка 484
Вопрос
Implicit attitude?
Ответ
An automatic evaluation that can affect responses without deliberate awareness.
Карточка 485
Вопрос
Ethnocentrism?
Ответ
Judging other cultures by the standards of one's own culture and treating one's own as superior.
Карточка 486
Вопрос
How do confirmation bias and belief perseverance maintain an attitude?
Ответ
People may favor supporting evidence and retain the belief even after its original support is discredited.
Карточка 487
Вопрос
Normative social influence?
Ответ
Conforming to gain approval or avoid rejection.
Карточка 488
Вопрос
Psychodynamic view of personality?
Ответ
Unconscious conflicts and motives influence personality and behavior.
Карточка 489
Вопрос
Norm of reciprocity?
Ответ
The expectation that people should return help or favors.
Карточка 490
Вопрос
Individualism?
Ответ
A cultural orientation that gives greater priority to personal goals, autonomy, and individual identity.
Карточка 491
Вопрос
Informational social influence?
Ответ
Conforming because the group is treated as a source of accurate information.
Карточка 492
Вопрос
Id?
Ответ
The psychodynamic component driven by immediate gratification and the pleasure principle.
Карточка 493
Вопрос
Altruism?
Ответ
Helping intended to benefit another person without requiring a personal reward.
Карточка 494
Вопрос
Social norm?
Ответ
A group's shared expectation about acceptable behavior.
Карточка 495
Вопрос
What tends to increase conformity?
Ответ
Unanimity, group size up to a point, public responses, ambiguity, and group importance.
Карточка 496
Вопрос
Ego?
Ответ
The psychodynamic component that manages reality and balances competing demands.
Карточка 497
Вопрос
A skilled runner improves before a crowd, but a beginner makes more errors. Which group effect fits?
Ответ
Social facilitation: an audience strengthens the dominant response.
Карточка 498
Вопрос
Collectivism?
Ответ
A cultural orientation that gives greater priority to group goals, interdependence, and shared identity.
Карточка 499
Вопрос
Obedience?
Ответ
Changing behavior in response to a direct command from an authority.
Карточка 500
Вопрос
Superego?
Ответ
The psychodynamic component representing internalized moral standards.
Карточка 501
Вопрос
A person continues acting as if a painful diagnosis cannot be real despite clear evidence. Which defense mechanism fits?
Ответ
Denial.
Карточка 502
Вопрос
Social-responsibility norm?
Ответ
The expectation that people should help those who depend on them or need assistance.
Карточка 503
Вопрос
How does proximity affect attraction?
Ответ
Frequent contact creates opportunities for familiarity and relationship development.
Карточка 504
Вопрос
What tends to increase obedience?
Ответ
A legitimate nearby authority, gradual escalation, institutional support, and distance from the affected person.
Карточка 505
Вопрос
After an argument with a supervisor, an employee snaps at a roommate. Which defense mechanism fits?
Ответ
Displacement.
Карточка 506
Вопрос
Social loafing?
Ответ
Exerting less effort when individual contributions to a group task aren't identifiable.
Карточка 507
Вопрос
Multiculturalism?
Ответ
Recognizing and supporting distinct cultural identities within a shared society or institution.
Карточка 508
Вопрос
How does similarity affect attraction?
Ответ
Shared attitudes, values, and interests often increase liking.
Карточка 509
Вопрос
A person who feels hostile insists that everyone else is hostile toward them. Which defense mechanism fits?
Ответ
Projection.
Карточка 510
Вопрос
Helping falls as group size rises. Best explanation?
Ответ
Responsibility diffuses across more bystanders; the result doesn't show that groups eliminate empathy.
Карточка 511
Вопрос
Deindividuation?
Ответ
Reduced self-awareness and restraint in an anonymous or arousing group setting.
Карточка 512
Вопрос
Group polarization?
Ответ
Discussion strengthens the group's initial average tendency.
Карточка 513
Вопрос
After being rejected, an applicant says the opportunity was worthless anyway. Which defense mechanism fits?
Ответ
Rationalization.
Карточка 514
Вопрос
A cohesive team ignores warnings and pressures doubters to preserve agreement. Which process is this?
Ответ
Groupthink.
Карточка 515
Вопрос
Pluralistic ignorance?
Ответ
People privately reject a norm or perceive danger but assume others' calm behavior means it is accepted or safe.
Карточка 516
Вопрос
Social trap?
Ответ
Individuals pursue short-term self-interest that produces a worse long-term outcome for everyone.
Карточка 517
Вопрос
Reaction formation?
Ответ
Expressing the opposite of an unacceptable impulse.
Карточка 518
Вопрос
Superordinate goal?
Ответ
A shared goal that competing groups can reach only through cooperation.
Карточка 519
Вопрос
False-consensus effect?
Ответ
Overestimating how widely other people share one's beliefs or behavior.
Карточка 520
Вопрос
Industrial-organizational psychology?
Ответ
Applying psychological science to work, organizations, hiring, performance, and employee well-being.
Карточка 521
Вопрос
Repression?
Ответ
Unconsciously blocking distressing thoughts or impulses from awareness.
Карточка 522
Вопрос
Burnout?
Ответ
Work-related exhaustion, detachment or cynicism, and reduced sense of effectiveness after chronic stress.
Карточка 523
Вопрос
Unconditional positive regard?
Ответ
Acceptance and respect that aren't dependent on meeting another person's conditions.
Карточка 524
Вопрос
Trait?
Ответ
A relatively stable tendency to think, feel, or behave in a certain way.
Карточка 525
Вопрос
Regression as a defense mechanism?
Ответ
Reverting to an earlier pattern of behavior when facing stress or conflict.
Карточка 526
Вопрос
Reciprocal determinism?
Ответ
Behavior, personal factors, and environment influence one another.
Карточка 527
Вопрос
Self-efficacy?
Ответ
Belief in one's ability to perform a specific task or meet a challenge.
Карточка 528
Вопрос
Self-concept in humanistic theory?
Ответ
A person's organized understanding of who they are.
Карточка 529
Вопрос
Sublimation as a defense mechanism?
Ответ
Redirecting an unacceptable impulse into a socially valued activity.
Карточка 530
Вопрос
A person seeks novel ideas, art, and unfamiliar experiences. Which Big Five trait is most evident?
Ответ
Openness.
Карточка 531
Вопрос
Personality inventory?
Ответ
A standardized self-report questionnaire used to measure traits or patterns.
Карточка 532
Вопрос
Self-actualizing tendency?
Ответ
The humanistic idea that people are motivated to grow and fulfill their capacities.
Карточка 533
Вопрос
Self-esteem?
Ответ
A person's overall evaluation of their worth or value.
Карточка 534
Вопрос
Instinct in motivation research?
Ответ
An innate, typically fixed behavior pattern in nonhuman animals; this framework doesn't classify human motivation as instinctual.
Карточка 535
Вопрос
A person plans carefully, meets deadlines, and follows through. Which Big Five trait is most evident?
Ответ
Conscientiousness.
Карточка 536
Вопрос
Projective test?
Ответ
An ambiguous stimulus used to invite responses thought to reflect inner themes; reliability and validity can be limited.
Карточка 537
Вопрос
How does factor analysis help trait research?
Ответ
It identifies clusters of correlated behaviors or questionnaire items that may reflect broader traits.
Карточка 538
Вопрос
Drive-reduction theory?
Ответ
A physiological need creates arousal that motivates behavior to restore balance.
Карточка 539
Вопрос
A person is sociable, assertive, and energized by group interaction. Which Big Five trait is most evident?
Ответ
Extraversion.
Карточка 540
Вопрос
Person–situation debate?
Ответ
It asks how much behavior reflects stable traits versus changing contexts.
Карточка 541
Вопрос
A training study reports Cohen's d = 0.65 for improvement in self-efficacy. What does this statistic describe?
Ответ
The standardized size of the group difference; 0.65 is commonly interpreted as a moderate effect, not proof that the result will matter equally in every setting.
Карточка 542
Вопрос
Homeostasis?
Ответ
The body's tendency to maintain a stable internal state.
Карточка 543
Вопрос
Incentive theory?
Ответ
External rewards or goals pull behavior toward them.
Карточка 544
Вопрос
Big Five agreeableness?
Ответ
Compassion, trust, and cooperativeness.
Карточка 545
Вопрос
A student retakes a questionnaire after an unusually low self-efficacy score and scores closer to their usual level. What statistical tendency may explain part of the change?
Ответ
Regression toward the mean: an extreme score is often followed by a less extreme score because temporary influences are unlikely to repeat exactly.
Карточка 546
Вопрос
A student must choose between two appealing internships. Which motivational conflict is this?
Ответ
An approach–approach conflict.
Карточка 547
Вопрос
Arousal theory of motivation?
Ответ
People seek a personally suitable level of stimulation.
Карточка 548
Вопрос
Big Five emotional stability?
Ответ
A tendency toward calm and resilience; it is the inverse of neuroticism.
Карточка 549
Вопрос
What regulates hunger?
Ответ
Biological signals such as ghrelin and leptin interact with learning, culture, stress, and food cues.
Карточка 550
Вопрос
Three broad components of emotion?
Ответ
Physiological arousal, expressive behavior, and conscious experience or appraisal.
Карточка 551
Вопрос
Self-determination theory?
Ответ
Motivation grows when autonomy, competence, and relatedness are supported.
Карточка 552
Вопрос
Emotion regulation?
Ответ
Processes used to influence which emotions arise, when they arise, and how they are expressed.
Карточка 553
Вопрос
Sensation-seeking?
Ответ
A tendency to pursue novel, varied, or intense experiences, sometimes despite risk.
Карточка 554
Вопрос
Cognitive appraisal in emotion?
Ответ
Interpreting what an event means for one's goals, safety, or well-being.
Карточка 555
Вопрос
Intrinsic motivation?
Ответ
Doing an activity for its own interest or satisfaction.
Карточка 556
Вопрос
Display rules?
Ответ
Cultural norms that shape when and how emotions are expressed.
Карточка 557
Вопрос
Arousal and performance relationship?
Ответ
Moderate arousal often supports difficult tasks, while higher arousal can help simple or well-learned tasks.
Карточка 558
Вопрос
A promotion offers higher pay but requires an unwanted move. Which motivational conflict is this?
Ответ
An approach–avoidance conflict.
Карточка 559
Вопрос
Extrinsic motivation?
Ответ
Doing an activity for an external reward or to avoid punishment.
Карточка 560
Вопрос
Achievement motivation?
Ответ
The drive to meet standards, master tasks, and pursue success.
Карточка 561
Вопрос
Four sensation-seeking dimensions?
Ответ
Thrill and adventure seeking, experience seeking, disinhibition, and boredom susceptibility.
Карточка 562
Вопрос
A person must either pay a fine or complete an unpleasant course. Which motivational conflict is this?
Ответ
An avoidance–avoidance conflict.
Карточка 563
Вопрос
Overjustification effect?
Ответ
Expected external rewards can reduce intrinsic interest in an activity already enjoyed.
Карточка 564
Вопрос
Belongingness motivation?
Ответ
The drive to form and maintain stable, positive relationships with other people.
Карточка 565
Вопрос
Study time changed after students chose their own topic:

Condition Mean minutes

Assigned topic 34

Chosen topic 47

What is the observed mean difference?
Ответ
13 minutes more in the chosen-topic condition; the table alone does not show whether the difference is statistically significant.
Карточка 566
Вопрос
Facial-feedback effect?
Ответ
Facial expressions can influence the emotion a person experiences.
Карточка 567
Вопрос
Can bodily arousal occur before conscious interpretation?
Ответ
Yes. Some emotional responses begin quickly, while later appraisal shapes the experience.
Карточка 568
Вопрос
A speaker reframes a racing heart as readiness rather than danger. Which emotion-regulation strategy is this?
Ответ
Cognitive reappraisal.
Карточка 569
Вопрос
Broaden-and-build view?
Ответ
Positive emotion can widen attention and action possibilities, helping build lasting resources.
Карточка 570
Вопрос
Which emotions often appear across cultures?
Ответ
Anger, disgust, sadness, happiness, surprise, and fear, though findings on universality are mixed.
Карточка 571
Вопрос
How can the same arousal become different emotions?
Ответ
Context and cognitive interpretation can label similar physiological arousal differently.
Карточка 572
Вопрос
Expressive suppression?
Ответ
Inhibiting the outward display of emotion after it has arisen.
Карточка 573
Вопрос
How does acute stress affect the body?
Ответ
It activates sympathetic and hormonal responses that mobilize energy for immediate demands.
Карточка 574
Вопрос
Cultures differ in public emotional expression. What shouldn't be concluded?
Ответ
That people in one culture don't experience the emotion; display rules can alter expression.
Карточка 575
Вопрос
In a medication study, neither participants nor outcome raters know who receives the active drug or an inactive pill. What two safeguards are present?
Ответ
A placebo control and double-blinding, which reduce expectancy effects and observer bias.
Карточка 576
Вопрос
A scatterplot rises from lower left to upper right, with points close to a line. What relationship does it show?
Ответ
A strong positive correlation: higher values of one variable tend to occur with higher values of the other.
Карточка 577
Вопрос
Health psychology?
Ответ
The study of how biological, psychological, and social factors affect health and illness.
Карточка 578
Вопрос
Positive psychology?
Ответ
The scientific study of strengths, well-being, and conditions that help people and communities thrive.
Карточка 579
Вопрос
Stress?
Ответ
The process of appraising and responding to events viewed as threatening or demanding.
Карточка 580
Вопрос
A study records stress ratings from 1 to 10 and also collects open-ended descriptions. Which data are quantitative and which are qualitative?
Ответ
The numeric ratings are quantitative; the written descriptions are qualitative.
Карточка 581
Вопрос
Why do sleep, exercise, and nutrition matter to health psychology?
Ответ
They are behaviors that interact with stress and biology to influence health outcomes.
Карточка 582
Вопрос
Resilience?
Ответ
Adapting or recovering after adversity; it is a process, not a guarantee of being unaffected.
Карточка 583
Вопрос
Stressor?
Ответ
An event or condition that challenges a person's ability to cope.
Карточка 584
Вопрос
General adaptation syndrome?
Ответ
A three-phase pattern of alarm, resistance, and exhaustion under prolonged stress.
Карточка 585
Вопрос
A worker makes a schedule and asks for resources to reduce a controllable workload. Which coping approach is this?
Ответ
Problem-focused coping.
Карточка 586
Вопрос
A stress study uses nonhuman animals. What ethical duties apply?
Ответ
Researchers need scientific justification, humane care, the least possible pain and distress, and oversight by an institutional animal care and use committee.
Карточка 587
Вопрос
A student first judges whether an upcoming exam threatens an important goal. Which appraisal is this?
Ответ
Primary appraisal.
Карточка 588
Вопрос
What happens during the alarm phase of general adaptation syndrome?
Ответ
A fight, flight, or freeze response mobilizes resources when the stressor is first encountered.
Карточка 589
Вопрос
How can major trauma and daily hassles both create stress?
Ответ
One can overwhelm through intensity, while repeated smaller demands can accumulate over time.
Карточка 590
Вопрос
A person uses breathing and social support to manage feelings about an unchangeable loss. Which coping approach is this?
Ответ
Emotion-focused coping.
Карточка 591
Вопрос
The student next considers available study time, tutoring, and coping options. Which appraisal is this?
Ответ
Secondary appraisal.
Карточка 592
Вопрос
Why can prolonged exhaustion increase illness risk?
Ответ
Stress resources are depleted, and sustained physiological activation can weaken health and immune function.
Карточка 593
Вопрос
Adverse childhood experiences?
Ответ
Potentially traumatic childhood conditions linked with higher later health risks, without determining any one person's outcome.
Карточка 594
Вопрос
How can social support protect health?
Ответ
It provides practical help, belonging, perspective, and a buffer against stress.
Карточка 595
Вопрос
Eustress versus distress?
Ответ
Eustress is experienced as motivating or manageable; distress is experienced as harmful or overwhelming.
Карточка 596
Вопрос
Tend-and-befriend response?
Ответ
Coping with stress by caring for needs and seeking supportive connection, a pattern observed especially among women.
Карточка 597
Вопрос
Two interviewees say, “After the setback, I adjusted my plan” and “I recovered and kept working toward my goal.” Which well-being concept appears in both qualitative responses?
Ответ
Resilience; both accounts describe adapting or recovering after adversity.
Карточка 598
Вопрос
Biofeedback?
Ответ
Using real-time information about bodily activity to learn voluntary regulation of that activity.
Карточка 599
Вопрос
How does perceived control affect stress?
Ответ
A sense of control often reduces stress, while uncontrollability can intensify it.
Карточка 600
Вопрос
Psychoneuroimmunology?
Ответ
The study of interactions among psychological processes, the nervous system, hormones, and immune function.
Карточка 601
Вопрос
Subjective well-being?
Ответ
A person's life satisfaction together with the balance of positive and negative emotion.
Карточка 602
Вопрос
Psychological disorder?
Ответ
A clinically significant disturbance in thought, emotion, or behavior that causes distress or impairment.
Карточка 603
Вопрос
How can gratitude practice affect well-being?
Ответ
Regularly noticing valued experiences can increase positive emotion for some people, though effects vary.
Карточка 604
Вопрос
A school survey samples 120 students from a population of 1,800 enrolled students. What are the sample and population?
Ответ
The 120 respondents are the sample; all 1,800 enrolled students are the target population.
Карточка 605
Вопрос
Signature strengths?
Ответ
Character strengths that are especially central and natural to a person and can be used deliberately.
Карточка 606
Вопрос
Biopsychosocial model?
Ответ
Biological, psychological, and sociocultural factors interact in health and disorder.
Карточка 607
Вопрос
Six broad virtue categories in positive psychology?
Ответ
Wisdom, courage, humanity, justice, temperance, and transcendence.
Карточка 608
Вопрос
Posttraumatic growth?
Ответ
Positive psychological change that can develop through struggling with trauma or major stress; it doesn't erase harm.
Карточка 609
Вопрос
An optional well-being survey is completed mostly by students who already attend wellness clubs. How does this affect generalizability?
Ответ
Self-selection creates sampling bias, so the results may not generalize to students with different interests or experiences.
Карточка 610
Вопрос
A survey asks people to report how often they exercise. What limitation should the researcher consider?
Ответ
Self-report can be distorted by inaccurate memory, question wording, or socially desirable answers.
Карточка 611
Вопрос
A treatment comparison reports p = .03 with a preset alpha of .05. Is the result statistically significant?
Ответ
Yes. Because .03 is below .05, the result is statistically significant, though that does not show the effect is large or important.
Карточка 612
Вопрос
A striking well-being result appears in one small study. What should happen before confidence grows?
Ответ
Independent replication and critical peer review should test whether the finding is reliable and the methods support the claim.
Карточка 613
Вопрос
Biological explanation of disorder?
Ответ
It focuses on genetic, neural, hormonal, or other physiological factors.
Карточка 614
Вопрос
Attention-deficit/hyperactivity disorder?
Ответ
A neurodevelopmental disorder involving developmentally inappropriate inattention and/or hyperactivity-impulsivity that impairs functioning.
Карточка 615
Вопрос
Purpose of the DSM?
Ответ
It supplies shared diagnostic categories and criteria for communication, research, and treatment planning.
Карточка 616
Вопрос
What must informed consent explain before people join a psychology study?
Ответ
The study's general nature, foreseeable risks and benefits, confidentiality limits, voluntary participation, and the right to withdraw. Research with minors also generally requires guardian permission and the child's assent.
Карточка 617
Вопрос
Behavioral explanation of disorder?
Ответ
It focuses on maladaptive responses learned through conditioning or observation.
Карточка 618
Вопрос
Autism spectrum disorder?
Ответ
A neurodevelopmental disorder involving differences in social communication and restricted or repetitive behavior, with varied support needs.
Карточка 619
Вопрос
Schizophrenia's broad symptom areas?
Ответ
Delusions, hallucinations, disorganized thought or speech, disorganized movement, and negative symptoms.
Карточка 620
Вопрос
Major depressive disorder?
Ответ
A sustained depressive episode with mood, cognitive, physical, and motivational changes that impair functioning.
Карточка 621
Вопрос
Specific phobia?
Ответ
Intense, persistent fear of a particular object or situation that leads to avoidance or distress.
Карточка 622
Вопрос
Obsessive-compulsive disorder?
Ответ
Obsessions, compulsions, or both consume time or cause significant distress or impairment.
Карточка 623
Вопрос
Dissociative amnesia?
Ответ
Inability to recall important autobiographical information, usually related to trauma or stress, beyond ordinary forgetting.
Карточка 624
Вопрос
Bipolar I disorder?
Ответ
A bipolar disorder defined by at least one full manic episode, often with depressive episodes.
Карточка 625
Вопрос
Posttraumatic stress disorder?
Ответ
Persistent intrusion, avoidance, negative mood or thinking, and heightened arousal after trauma exposure.
Карточка 626
Вопрос
Anorexia nervosa?
Ответ
Persistent energy restriction, significantly low body weight, intense fear of weight gain, and disturbed body experience.
Карточка 627
Вопрос
Cognitive explanation of disorder?
Ответ
It focuses on maladaptive beliefs, interpretations, and thinking patterns.
Карточка 628
Вопрос
Bipolar II disorder?
Ответ
A bipolar disorder involving hypomanic and major depressive episodes without a full manic episode.
Карточка 629
Вопрос
Purpose of the ICD?
Ответ
The World Health Organization's classification system supplies internationally used codes and categories for health conditions, including mental disorders.
Карточка 630
Вопрос
Bulimia nervosa?
Ответ
Repeated binge eating followed by compensatory behavior, with self-evaluation strongly influenced by body shape or weight.
Карточка 631
Вопрос
What broadly defines a personality disorder pattern?
Ответ
An enduring, inflexible pattern that departs from cultural expectations, begins in adolescence or early adulthood, and causes distress or impairment.
Карточка 632
Вопрос
Ataque de nervios?
Ответ
A culture-related syndrome, described especially in some Latin American and Caribbean communities, involving an acute episode of intense emotional distress and loss of control.
Карточка 633
Вопрос
Psychodynamic explanation of disorder?
Ответ
It focuses on unconscious conflicts and early relationships.
Карточка 634
Вопрос
Three considerations when identifying a psychological disorder?
Ответ
Dysfunction, experienced distress, and deviation from social norms, interpreted with cultural context.
Карточка 635
Вопрос
When may deception be ethically considered in research, and what must follow?
Ответ
Only when justified, minimal-risk, and not replaceable by a practical alternative; researchers must debrief participants promptly and explain the deception.
Карточка 636
Вопрос
Comorbidity?
Ответ
The presence of two or more disorders in the same person.
Карточка 637
Вопрос
Humanistic explanation of distress?
Ответ
It focuses on blocked growth, incongruence, and conditions of worth.
Карточка 638
Вопрос
Confidential versus anonymous research data?
Ответ
Confidential data can be linked to identities but are protected; anonymous data are collected without identifying links.
Карточка 639
Вопрос
Stigma around mental disorder?
Ответ
Negative stereotypes and discrimination that can increase distress and discourage help-seeking.
Карточка 640
Вопрос
Why must diagnosis consider culture?
Ответ
Norms affect how distress is expressed and interpreted, so behavior can't be judged outside its context.
Карточка 641
Вопрос
Sociocultural explanation of disorder?
Ответ
It focuses on social roles, inequality, relationships, discrimination, and cultural context.
Карточка 642
Вопрос
Two clinicians independently use the same criteria. What quality is being checked?
Ответ
Interrater reliability.
Карточка 643
Вопрос
A category improves communication but overlaps another category. Balanced conclusion?
Ответ
Classification is useful, but boundaries and comorbidity limit the idea of perfectly separate disorders.
Карточка 644
Вопрос
Best account of neurodevelopmental-disorder causes?
Ответ
Genetic, physiological, and environmental factors may interact; no single cause explains every case.
Карточка 645
Вопрос
Evolutionary explanation of disorder?
Ответ
It asks whether a behavior or mental process reflects an adaptation, mismatch, or cost related to survival and reproduction.
Карточка 646
Вопрос
Delusion?
Ответ
A firmly held false belief that persists despite strong contrary evidence and isn't explained by cultural context.
Карточка 647
Вопрос
Agoraphobia?
Ответ
Intense fear of situations where escape or help may feel difficult, such as crowds, transit, open spaces, or being outside alone.
Карточка 648
Вопрос
Best account of schizophrenia risk?
Ответ
Biological vulnerability, including genetic and neural factors, interacts with prenatal and later environmental stressors.
Карточка 649
Вопрос
Eclectic approach to disorder?
Ответ
Using ideas or treatments from more than one psychological perspective when evidence and client needs support them.
Карточка 650
Вопрос
Hallucination?
Ответ
A sensory perception without a matching external stimulus.
Карточка 651
Вопрос
Panic disorder?
Ответ
Recurrent unexpected panic attacks followed by continuing concern or behavior change related to more attacks.
Карточка 652
Вопрос
Best account of depressive-disorder causes?
Ответ
Biological vulnerability can interact with learning, cognition, relationships, culture, and stressful events.
Карточка 653
Вопрос
Two people face the same stressor, but the person with greater underlying vulnerability develops symptoms. Which model fits?
Ответ
The diathesis–stress model.
Карточка 654
Вопрос
Cluster A personality disorders?
Ответ
The odd or eccentric cluster: paranoid, schizoid, and schizotypal personality disorders.
Карточка 655
Вопрос
What do psychotherapy meta-analyses generally find?
Ответ
Psychotherapy is effective on average, while outcomes vary by problem, method, therapist, and client.
Карточка 656
Вопрос
Evidence-based treatment?
Ответ
Using the best research evidence together with clinical expertise and the client's needs, culture, and preferences.
Карточка 657
Вопрос
Therapeutic alliance?
Ответ
A collaborative, trusting relationship in which client and therapist agree on goals and work.
Карточка 658
Вопрос
Cultural humility in therapy?
Ответ
Ongoing self-reflection, respect, and willingness to learn from the client's cultural experience.
Карточка 659
Вопрос
Deinstitutionalization?
Ответ
Moving many people from long-term psychiatric hospitals toward community-based care, aided partly by medication.
Карточка 660
Вопрос
A client safely approaches a feared situation in planned steps instead of avoiding it. Which treatment method is this?
Ответ
Exposure therapy.
Карточка 661
Вопрос
Nonmaleficence in therapy?
Ответ
Avoiding or minimizing harm.
Карточка 662
Вопрос
Four medication categories in the course?
Ответ
Antidepressants, antianxiety drugs, lithium, and antipsychotic medications.
Карточка 663
Вопрос
Depressive cognitive triad?
Ответ
Negative views of oneself, the world, and the future.
Карточка 664
Вопрос
Applied behavior analysis?
Ответ
Using measured learning principles to change socially significant behavior.
Карточка 665
Вопрос
Psychosurgery?
Ответ
Rare invasive treatment that alters brain tissue; modern use is tightly limited because effects can be irreversible.
Карточка 666
Вопрос
Free association?
Ответ
A psychodynamic technique in which a client says whatever comes to mind to explore unconscious themes.
Карточка 667
Вопрос
A client examines evidence for an automatic thought and develops a more accurate alternative. Which technique is this?
Ответ
Cognitive restructuring.
Карточка 668
Вопрос
One advantage of group therapy?
Ответ
Members can receive support, feedback, and practice with others while learning they aren't alone.
Карточка 669
Вопрос
Lobotomy?
Ответ
An obsolete form of psychosurgery that cut frontal-lobe connections and often caused severe, irreversible harm.
Карточка 670
Вопрос
Best account of bipolar-disorder causes?
Ответ
Biological and genetic influences are important, while stress and social context can affect episodes.
Карточка 671
Вопрос
Cognitive-behavioral therapy?
Ответ
Treatment that changes maladaptive thinking and behavior together.
Карточка 672
Вопрос
Disorganized speech in schizophrenia?
Ответ
Speech becomes difficult to follow because ideas or words are connected in disordered ways.
Карточка 673
Вопрос
Social anxiety disorder?
Ответ
Intense fear of scrutiny or negative evaluation in social situations.
Карточка 674
Вопрос
Best account of obsessive-compulsive-disorder causes?
Ответ
Biological factors and learned relief from compulsions can combine with maladaptive beliefs.
Карточка 675
Вопрос
Rational-emotive behavior therapy?
Ответ
A cognitive-behavioral approach that challenges rigid, irrational beliefs and builds more workable alternatives.
Карточка 676
Вопрос
Dissociative fugue?
Ответ
Dissociative amnesia accompanied by unexpected travel or confusion about identity.
Карточка 677
Вопрос
Cluster B personality disorders?
Ответ
The dramatic, emotional, or erratic cluster: antisocial, borderline, histrionic, and narcissistic personality disorders.
Карточка 678
Вопрос
Best account of anxiety-disorder causes?
Ответ
Biological vulnerability, learned fear, avoidance, and maladaptive interpretation can interact.
Карточка 679
Вопрос
Catatonia?
Ответ
Markedly disordered movement, which can include unusual excitement or profound lack of movement.
Карточка 680
Вопрос
Manic episode?
Ответ
A distinct period of unusually elevated or irritable mood and increased energy severe enough to cause major impairment or require hospitalization.
Карточка 681
Вопрос
Dissociative identity disorder?
Ответ
Disruption of identity involving distinct personality states and gaps in autobiographical memory.
Карточка 682
Вопрос
Best account of feeding and eating disorder causes?
Ответ
Biological, cognitive, behavioral, family, social, and cultural factors can interact.
Карточка 683
Вопрос
Cluster C personality disorders?
Ответ
The anxious or fearful cluster: avoidant, dependent, and obsessive-compulsive personality disorders.
Карточка 684
Вопрос
Taijin kyofusho?
Ответ
A culture-related syndrome described in Japan involving intense fear that one's appearance, gaze, odor, or behavior will offend or embarrass other people.
Карточка 685
Вопрос
Negative symptom of schizophrenia?
Ответ
A reduction in a typical function, such as emotional expression, speech, motivation, or movement.
Карточка 686
Вопрос
What experiences are often linked with dissociative disorders?
Ответ
Severe trauma or stress, though diagnosis requires careful assessment and isn't inferred from trauma alone.
Карточка 687
Вопрос
Hypomanic episode?
Ответ
A noticeable period of elevated or irritable mood and increased energy that is less severe and impairing than mania.
Карточка 688
Вопрос
Generalized anxiety disorder?
Ответ
Persistent, hard-to-control anxiety and worry across several areas of life.
Карточка 689
Вопрос
Hoarding disorder?
Ответ
Persistent difficulty discarding possessions, producing clutter that impairs the use of living spaces.
Карточка 690
Вопрос
Best account of personality-disorder causes?
Ответ
Biological dispositions and long-term social, cultural, learning, and cognitive influences can interact.
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Вопрос
Why can't one symptom establish a disorder?
Ответ
Diagnosis depends on a broader pattern, duration, distress or impairment, context, and alternative explanations.
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Вопрос
Persistent depressive disorder?
Ответ
A chronic depressed mood with related symptoms lasting at least two years in adults or one year in children and adolescents.
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Вопрос
Fidelity in therapy ethics?
Ответ
Maintaining trust, responsibility, and professional commitments.
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Вопрос
Systematic desensitization?
Ответ
Gradual exposure to a fear hierarchy while practicing relaxation or another incompatible response.
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Вопрос
Dream interpretation in psychodynamic therapy?
Ответ
Exploring possible personal meanings and unconscious themes in dreams, not treating dreams as objective facts.
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Вопрос
Dialectical behavior therapy?
Ответ
A cognitive-behavioral approach that builds mindfulness, emotion regulation, distress tolerance, and relationship skills.
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Вопрос
Integrity in therapy ethics?
Ответ
Being honest and accurate in professional work.
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Вопрос
Aversion therapy?
Ответ
Pairing an unwanted behavior with an unpleasant stimulus to reduce the behavior.
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Вопрос
Tardive dyskinesia?
Ответ
A movement disorder that can occur as a serious side effect of long-term antipsychotic medication.
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Вопрос
ECT versus TMS?
Ответ
ECT induces a controlled seizure under anesthesia; TMS uses magnetic pulses without surgery. Both can treat selected conditions.
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Вопрос
Respect for rights and dignity?
Ответ
Protecting autonomy, privacy, confidentiality, and fair treatment.
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Вопрос
A clinic awards points for target behaviors, and clients exchange the points for privileges. Which method is this?
Ответ
A token economy.
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Вопрос
A therapist emphasizes empathy, genuineness, active listening, and unconditional positive regard. Which approach is this?
Ответ
Person-centered therapy.
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Вопрос
What can hypnosis treat, and what can't it reliably do?
Ответ
It can help some pain and anxiety; it can't reliably recover accurate memories or produce true age regression.
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Вопрос
Medication and psychotherapy outperform either alone for some conditions. Best conclusion?
Ответ
Combined treatment can be useful for some clients, but the best plan depends on the condition and individual evidence.

Workload	Errors
Low	2
High	8

Condition	Mean minutes
Assigned topic	34
Chosen topic	47

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