Flashcards Open Source App — Five-Unit Psychology Course Review
Review five units of psychology through concept recall, real-world applications, research methods, data analysis, and evidence-based reasoning.
Über dieses Lernkartenset
Review a five-unit psychology course with 705 independently written cards, ready to install and study offline. The deck covers biological bases of behavior, cognition, development and learning, social psychology and personality, and mental and physical health. It supports four science practices through concept application, research methods and design, data interpretation, and argumentation.
What this deck practices
- Concept → meaning or function: recall a concise definition, mechanism, or distinction.
- Scenario → concept: identify the idea that best explains a behavior, symptom pattern, or result.
- Study description → method: identify a design, variable, sampling decision, ethical safeguard, limitation, or warranted conclusion.
- Data representation → interpretation: read a compact table, distribution, graph pattern, statistic, or calculation and decide what the evidence shows.
- Claim + evidence → reasoning: connect evidence to a defensible psychological explanation.
The sequence follows Units 1–5, stays within the current or next topic, and puts prerequisites and chronological steps first. Manually identified definition/application, foundation/claim, scenario, cue, and near-duplicate variants are assigned semantic families. At least three cards unrelated to either variant separate consecutive members of each family. Explicit prerequisite and chronological sequences stay together only when adjacency makes the progression easier to learn.
What's deliberately left out
The deck doesn't mechanically reverse every definition, diagnose personal anecdotes, offer treatment advice, or include long essay prompts. It stays within the reviewed five-unit course boundary and leaves out detailed genetics, neuron labeling, out-of-scope theories, unlisted disorders, names-and-dates trivia, and exhaustive study permutations.
Content and scope were reviewed on 2026-08-25.
The psychological facts and course outline aren't claimed as original. The CC0 label applies only to the independently written prompts, answers, organization, metadata, and ordering, to the extent those rights exist. No examination questions, scoring materials, curriculum text, source prose, logos, or third-party media were copied.
This independent, unofficial study deck is not affiliated with or endorsed by College Board.
Karten in diesem Lernkartenset
Karte 1
Frage
Nature in the nature–nurture question?
Antwort
Inherited biological influences on behavior and mental processes.
Karte 2
Frage
Central nervous system?
Antwort
The brain and spinal cord, which process information and coordinate responses.
Karte 3
Frage
Main role of the spinal cord?
Antwort
It carries messages between brain and body and organizes some reflexes.
Karte 4
Frage
Scores are
4, 6, 8, 10. What is the mean?Antwort
7, found by dividing the total of 28 by 4 scores.
Karte 5
Frage
Nurture in the nature–nurture question?
Antwort
Environmental influences, such as family, culture, education, and experience.
Karte 6
Frage
Peripheral nervous system?
Antwort
The nerves that connect the central nervous system with the rest of the body.
Karte 7
Frage
Reflex arc?
Antwort
A rapid neural pathway that can produce a response through the spinal cord before conscious brain processing.
Karte 8
Frage
Reflex times are
180, 190, 210, 260, 410milliseconds. What is the median?Antwort
210 milliseconds, the middle score after ordering the five values.
Karte 9
Frage
Heritability?
Antwort
The proportion of variation in a trait within a population that is associated with genetic differences. It doesn't describe one person's trait.
Karte 10
Frage
Autonomic nervous system?
Antwort
The peripheral division that regulates involuntary functions of glands and internal organs.
Karte 11
Frage
Evolutionary perspective on behavior?
Antwort
It asks how natural selection may have favored psychological traits that helped survival or reproduction.
Karte 12
Frage
Why is eugenics scientifically and ethically invalid?
Antwort
It misuses heredity claims to rank people and justify coercion, while ignoring environmental influence, human rights, and the complexity of traits.
Karte 13
Frage
Why isn't behavior explained by genes or environment alone?
Antwort
They interact. A biological tendency can be strengthened, weakened, or redirected by experience.
Karte 14
Frage
Researchers compare a trait across biological relatives who share different amounts of DNA. Which method is this?
Antwort
A family study; twin comparisons are one example, but shared environments still limit causal conclusions.
Karte 15
Frage
Natural selection?
Antwort
Traits that support survival or reproduction can become more common across generations.
Karte 16
Frage
Somatic nervous system?
Antwort
The peripheral division that carries sensory information and controls voluntary skeletal-muscle movement.
Karte 17
Frage
Sensory neurons?
Antwort
They carry incoming information from sensory receptors toward the central nervous system.
Karte 18
Frage
Which design compares adoptees with both biological and adoptive relatives?
Antwort
An adoption study, used to separate some hereditary and environmental similarities.
Karte 19
Frage
Twins show a strong trait correlation. What keeps this result from proving genetic causation?
Antwort
Correlation doesn't isolate genes from shared environments or other confounding variables.
Karte 20
Frage
Sympathetic nervous system?
Antwort
The autonomic division that mobilizes energy during challenge or threat.
Karte 21
Frage
Evidence shows a genetic risk predicts an outcome only under chronic stress. Best claim?
Antwort
The outcome reflects a gene–environment interaction, not a purely genetic effect.
Karte 22
Frage
Motor neurons?
Antwort
They carry outgoing commands from the central nervous system to muscles or glands.
Karte 23
Frage
Sleep duration and stress are correlated. What directionality problem limits a causal conclusion?
Antwort
The result cannot show whether less sleep raises stress, stress reduces sleep, or both directions operate.
Karte 24
Frage
Parasympathetic nervous system?
Antwort
The autonomic division that calms the body and supports rest, digestion, and recovery.
Karte 25
Frage
Resting potential?
Antwort
The neuron's stable negative charge when it isn't firing, maintained by unequal ion concentrations across the membrane.
Karte 26
Frage
Interneurons?
Antwort
Neurons within the central nervous system that process information and connect other neurons.
Karte 27
Frage
Adrenaline's behavioral role?
Antwort
It helps mobilize the body during arousal and the fight-or-flight response.
Karte 28
Frage
Frontal lobes?
Antwort
Planning, judgment, impulse control, working memory, voluntary movement, and aspects of speech.
Karte 29
Frage
Neural threshold?
Antwort
The minimum stimulation needed to trigger an action potential.
Karte 30
Frage
Corpus callosum?
Antwort
The large fiber tract that carries information between the cerebral hemispheres.
Karte 31
Frage
Leptin's role in eating?
Antwort
It signals stored energy and helps reduce hunger.
Karte 32
Frage
Temporal lobes?
Antwort
Auditory processing, language comprehension, memory, and object recognition.
Karte 33
Frage
Depolarization during an action potential?
Antwort
Positive ions enter the neuron, making the membrane charge less negative and then briefly positive.
Karte 34
Frage
Dopamine's major psychological functions?
Antwort
Movement, motivation, reward learning, attention, and reinforcement.
Karte 35
Frage
Ghrelin's role in eating?
Antwort
It helps stimulate hunger.
Karte 36
Frage
Drug agonist?
Antwort
A substance that increases a neurotransmitter's effect by activating its receptor or supporting its action.
Karte 37
Frage
Action potential?
Antwort
A brief electrical impulse that travels along a neuron after threshold is reached.
Karte 38
Frage
Reuptake?
Antwort
The sending neuron reabsorbs neurotransmitter from the synapse after release.
Karte 39
Frage
Serotonin's major psychological functions?
Antwort
Mood, sleep, appetite, and arousal regulation.
Karte 40
Frage
Glutamate's major psychological functions?
Antwort
It is the brain's main excitatory neurotransmitter and supports learning and memory.
Karte 41
Frage
Refractory period?
Antwort
A short recovery interval after firing when the neuron resets and can't immediately produce another full action potential.
Karte 42
Frage
Melatonin's role?
Antwort
It helps regulate circadian timing and promotes sleepiness in darkness.
Karte 43
Frage
Drug antagonist?
Antwort
A substance that blocks or reduces a neurotransmitter's effect at its receptor.
Karte 44
Frage
Stimulants?
Antwort
Psychoactive drugs that increase central nervous system activity and alertness.
Karte 45
Frage
Drug tolerance?
Antwort
A reduced response after repeated use, so a larger dose may be needed for the same effect.
Karte 46
Frage
Damage to myelin slows messages in the central nervous system. Which disorder illustrates this problem?
Antwort
Multiple sclerosis.
Karte 47
Frage
All-or-none principle?
Antwort
A neuron fires a full action potential once threshold is reached; stronger input changes firing rate, not impulse size.
Karte 48
Frage
Norepinephrine's major psychological functions?
Antwort
Alertness, arousal, attention, and the stress response.
Karte 49
Frage
GABA's major psychological function?
Antwort
It is the brain's main inhibitory neurotransmitter and reduces neural activity.
Karte 50
Frage
Oxytocin's behavioral role?
Antwort
It supports social bonding and also contributes to childbirth and lactation.
Karte 51
Frage
Reuptake inhibitor?
Antwort
A drug that keeps more neurotransmitter in the synapse by slowing reabsorption.
Karte 52
Frage
Depressants?
Antwort
Psychoactive drugs that reduce central nervous system activity.
Karte 53
Frage
Drug withdrawal?
Antwort
Physical or psychological symptoms that can appear when regular drug use is reduced or stopped.
Karte 54
Frage
Antibodies disrupt acetylcholine receptors at muscles, causing weakness. Which disorder illustrates this problem?
Antwort
Myasthenia gravis.
Karte 55
Frage
Glial cells?
Antwort
Cells that support, nourish, insulate, protect, and help regulate neurons and their connections.
Karte 56
Frage
Endorphins?
Antwort
Natural neurotransmitters that reduce pain and can produce pleasure.
Karte 57
Frage
Substance P?
Antwort
A neurotransmitter involved in pain signaling.
Karte 58
Frage
Acetylcholine's major functions?
Antwort
Muscle action, learning, memory, and attention.
Karte 59
Frage
Opioids?
Antwort
Drugs that bind to opioid receptors, reducing pain and often producing relaxation or euphoria.
Karte 60
Frage
Hallucinogens?
Antwort
Drugs that alter perception and can produce sensory experiences without matching external input.
Karte 61
Frage
Addiction?
Antwort
Compulsive substance use or behavior that continues despite harmful consequences and is difficult to control.
Karte 62
Frage
Parietal lobes?
Antwort
Body-sense processing, spatial attention, and integrating sensory information.
Karte 63
Frage
Consciousness?
Antwort
Awareness of internal experiences and the surrounding environment.
Karte 64
Frage
Circadian rhythm?
Antwort
A roughly 24-hour biological cycle that helps regulate sleep and wakefulness.
Karte 65
Frage
Damage causes slow, effortful speech with relatively preserved comprehension. Likely region?
Antwort
Broca's area, usually in the left frontal lobe.
Karte 66
Frage
Occipital lobes?
Antwort
Primary cortical processing of visual information.
Karte 67
Frage
What does split-brain research reveal?
Antwort
When the corpus callosum is severed, the hemispheres can process some information independently.
Karte 68
Frage
How does the suprachiasmatic nucleus regulate circadian rhythm?
Antwort
It uses light information from the eyes to coordinate the body's roughly 24-hour clock.
Karte 69
Frage
NREM-1 sleep?
Antwort
The light transition into sleep, sometimes accompanied by hypnagogic sensations.
Karte 70
Frage
Motor cortex?
Antwort
A frontal-lobe strip that directs voluntary movement.
Karte 71
Frage
Damage causes fluent but nonsensical speech and poor comprehension. Likely region?
Antwort
Wernicke's area, usually in the left temporal lobe.
Karte 72
Frage
Brainstem's core function?
Antwort
It supports basic survival functions and connects the brain with the spinal cord.
Karte 73
Frage
NREM-2 sleep?
Antwort
A light sleep stage marked by sleep spindles and K-complexes.
Karte 74
Frage
Somatosensory cortex?
Antwort
A parietal-lobe strip that registers touch and body-position information.
Karte 75
Frage
Medulla's main functions?
Antwort
It regulates vital automatic functions such as breathing and heart rate.
Karte 76
Frage
Reticular activating system?
Antwort
A brainstem network involved in alertness, arousal, and the sleep–wake cycle.
Karte 77
Frage
NREM-3 sleep?
Antwort
Deep slow-wave sleep, associated with physical restoration and difficult awakening.
Karte 78
Frage
Cerebellum's main functions?
Antwort
Balance, coordinated movement, procedural learning, and timing.
Karte 79
Frage
Thalamus?
Antwort
A relay that directs most sensory information to the cerebral cortex and helps regulate alertness.
Karte 80
Frage
Hypothalamus?
Antwort
It helps regulate homeostasis, hunger, thirst, temperature, sexual behavior, and endocrine activity.
Karte 81
Frage
REM sleep?
Antwort
A stage with vivid dreaming, rapid eye movements, active brain patterns, and skeletal-muscle paralysis.
Karte 82
Frage
Why is the pituitary called a master gland?
Antwort
Its hormones influence other endocrine glands, under the hypothalamus's control.
Karte 83
Frage
Amygdala?
Antwort
A limbic structure involved in processing emotion, threat, and emotional learning.
Karte 84
Frage
Hippocampus?
Antwort
A limbic structure essential for forming new explicit memories and spatial memory.
Karte 85
Frage
How does sleep change across a typical night?
Antwort
NREM and REM repeat in cycles; REM periods generally lengthen toward morning.
Karte 86
Frage
Contralateral brain control?
Antwort
Each cerebral hemisphere mainly receives sensory input from and controls movement on the opposite side of the body.
Karte 87
Frage
What does an EEG measure?
Antwort
Electrical activity recorded from the scalp, with strong timing information but limited spatial precision.
Karte 88
Frage
Reward-center activity?
Antwort
Activity in neural reward pathways can reinforce behaviors that predict desirable outcomes.
Karte 89
Frage
Neuroplasticity?
Antwort
The nervous system's ability to change its organization or function through experience, learning, or injury.
Karte 90
Frage
Which method shows brain activity changing during a task?
Antwort
A functional brain-imaging method, such as fMRI or PET, rather than a structural scan alone.
Karte 91
Frage
A patient loses a function after damage to one brain region. What is the cautious conclusion?
Antwort
The region contributes to the function, but the behavior may depend on a wider network.
Karte 92
Frage
Insomnia?
Antwort
Persistent difficulty falling asleep, staying asleep, or obtaining restorative sleep.
Karte 93
Frage
How do wavelength and amplitude shape sound?
Antwort
Wavelength relates to frequency and perceived pitch; amplitude relates to intensity and perceived loudness.
Karte 94
Frage
Absolute threshold?
Antwort
The minimum stimulation detected 50% of the time.
Karte 95
Frage
Activation-synthesis view of dreams?
Antwort
The brain builds a story while interpreting internally generated neural activity during sleep.
Karte 96
Frage
Narcolepsy?
Antwort
A disorder involving sudden sleep attacks and abnormal entry into REM sleep.
Karte 97
Frage
Why can jet lag disrupt sleep?
Antwort
The internal circadian clock is temporarily out of sync with the new light–dark schedule.
Karte 98
Frage
Difference threshold?
Antwort
The smallest change between stimuli detected 50% of the time.
Karte 99
Frage
Consolidation view of dreams?
Antwort
Dreaming may reflect the brain organizing and integrating recent memories.
Karte 100
Frage
REM sleep behavior disorder?
Antwort
Loss of normal REM muscle paralysis, allowing a person to act out dreams.
Karte 101
Frage
Why can rotating shift work impair sleep?
Antwort
Frequent schedule changes force the circadian system to keep readjusting.
Karte 102
Frage
Weber's law?
Antwort
The noticeable difference between two stimuli is a constant proportion of the original intensity.
Karte 103
Frage
Two supported functions of sleep?
Antwort
Memory consolidation and restoration of resources used during waking activity.
Karte 104
Frage
Sleep apnea?
Antwort
Repeated breathing interruptions during sleep that fragment sleep and reduce oxygen.
Karte 105
Frage
REM rebound?
Antwort
A temporary increase in REM sleep after a period of REM deprivation.
Karte 106
Frage
Signal detection theory?
Antwort
Detection depends on stimulus strength plus expectations, experience, motivation, and alertness.
Karte 107
Frage
Sensory transduction?
Antwort
Sensory receptors convert physical energy into neural signals.
Karte 108
Frage
Vestibular sense?
Antwort
The sense of balance and head movement, supported by structures in the inner ear.
Karte 109
Frage
Somnambulism?
Antwort
Sleepwalking, which most often occurs during deep NREM sleep.
Karte 110
Frage
Why is there a blind spot in each eye?
Antwort
The optic nerve leaves the retina at a point with no rods or cones.
Karte 111
Frage
What begins visual transduction?
Antwort
Retinal receptors convert light into neural signals that travel toward the brain.
Karte 112
Frage
A sound reaches the left ear slightly earlier and louder than the right. Where will it seem to originate?
Antwort
From the left, because the brain compares arrival-time and intensity differences between the ears.
Karte 113
Frage
Why are taste and smell called chemical senses?
Antwort
Their receptors respond to molecules from food or the air.
Karte 114
Frage
Accommodation in vision?
Antwort
The lens changes shape to focus near or distant objects on the retina.
Karte 115
Frage
Cones?
Antwort
Retinal receptors that support color vision and fine detail in brighter light.
Karte 116
Frage
What begins auditory transduction?
Antwort
Hair cells in the inner ear convert sound-driven vibration into neural signals.
Karte 117
Frage
How does trichromatic processing explain color vision?
Antwort
Three cone types respond most strongly to different wavelength ranges, and their combined activity produces color experience.
Karte 118
Frage
How is smell unusual among the senses?
Antwort
Olfactory signals reach cortical and limbic areas without first passing through the thalamic relay used by other senses.
Karte 119
Frage
Kinesthesia?
Antwort
The sense of body-part position and movement, based on signals from muscles, tendons, and joints.
Karte 120
Frage
Place coding versus frequency coding in hearing?
Antwort
Place coding links pitch to where the cochlea responds most; frequency coding links pitch to neural firing rate.
Karte 121
Frage
Nearsightedness?
Antwort
Nearby objects are clear, but distant images focus in front of the retina and look blurred.
Karte 122
Frage
Pheromones?
Antwort
Chemical signals released by one organism that can affect the behavior or physiology of others of the same species.
Karte 123
Frage
Touch receptors for warmth and cold fire together strongly. What sensation can result?
Antwort
A hot or burning sensation, showing that temperature experience combines receptor signals.
Karte 124
Frage
Volley theory of pitch?
Antwort
Groups of auditory neurons alternate firing so their combined rate can represent pitches too fast for one neuron alone.
Karte 125
Frage
Farsightedness?
Antwort
Distant vision is clearer, while nearby images tend to focus behind the retina and look blurred.
Karte 126
Frage
Six taste qualities named in the course?
Antwort
Sweet, sour, salty, bitter, umami, and oleogustus (fat taste).
Karte 127
Frage
Phantom-limb sensation?
Antwort
Feeling pain, touch, or movement in a limb that is no longer present because the nervous system still represents it.
Karte 128
Frage
Sensory interaction?
Antwort
One sense changes how another is experienced, as smell influences flavor.
Karte 129
Frage
What causes most color-vision deficiency?
Antwort
One or more cone types are missing or function differently, reducing discrimination among some colors.
Karte 130
Frage
Prosopagnosia?
Antwort
Difficulty recognizing familiar faces despite otherwise usable vision.
Karte 131
Frage
Rods?
Antwort
Retinal receptors sensitive to dim light and peripheral movement, without color detail.
Karte 132
Frage
How does opponent processing explain afterimages?
Antwort
Color is coded in opposing pairs, so tiring one response can make its opponent briefly dominate.
Karte 133
Frage
Conductive versus sensorineural hearing loss?
Antwort
Conductive loss blocks sound transmission; sensorineural loss damages hair cells or auditory pathways.
Karte 134
Frage
Nontasters, medium tasters, and supertasters?
Antwort
Categories describing lower, typical, and unusually high sensitivity to taste, especially bitterness.
Karte 135
Frage
What do the semicircular canals detect?
Antwort
Rotational head movement, helping the vestibular system maintain balance.
Karte 136
Frage
Synesthesia?
Antwort
Stimulation of one sense consistently and automatically produces an additional sensory experience.
Karte 137
Frage
Dichromatism versus monochromatism?
Antwort
Dichromatism uses two functioning cone systems; monochromatism uses one or none, producing far less color discrimination.
Karte 138
Frage
Blindsight?
Antwort
Responding to visual information without consciously seeing it, usually after damage to primary visual cortex.
Karte 139
Frage
Sensory adaptation?
Antwort
Reduced sensitivity after constant, unchanging stimulation.
Karte 140
Frage
Gate-control view of pain?
Antwort
Spinal and brain processes can amplify or reduce pain signals before conscious experience.
Karte 141
Frage
Bottom-up processing?
Antwort
Building a perception from incoming sensory details.
Karte 142
Frage
Concept?
Antwort
A mental category used to group similar objects, events, ideas, or people.
Karte 143
Frage
Fixation in problem solving?
Antwort
Getting stuck on one way of representing or solving a problem.
Karte 144
Frage
Algorithm?
Antwort
A step-by-step method that guarantees a solution when followed correctly, though it may be slow.
Karte 145
Frage
Top-down processing?
Antwort
Using expectations, context, and prior knowledge to interpret sensory input.
Karte 146
Frage
Confirmation bias?
Antwort
Seeking or interpreting evidence in ways that support an existing belief.
Karte 147
Frage
Retinal disparity?
Antwort
The difference between each eye's image; greater disparity usually signals a nearer object.
Karte 148
Frage
Heuristic?
Antwort
A quick rule of thumb that saves effort but can produce errors.
Karte 149
Frage
Selective attention?
Antwort
Focusing conscious awareness on one part of the available sensory input.
Karte 150
Frage
Figure–ground organization?
Antwort
Separating the object of attention from its background.
Karte 151
Frage
Convergence as a depth cue?
Antwort
The inward turning of the eyes increases as an object gets closer.
Karte 152
Frage
Representativeness heuristic?
Antwort
Judging category membership by resemblance to a prototype while neglecting other information.
Karte 153
Frage
Missing a visible event while attention is elsewhere?
Antwort
Inattentional blindness.
Karte 154
Frage
Gestalt proximity principle?
Antwort
Elements close together tend to be perceived as a group.
Karte 155
Frage
Two familiar objects cast different-sized retinal images. Which looks farther away?
Antwort
The one with the smaller retinal image, using the monocular cue of relative size.
Karte 156
Frage
Cocktail-party effect?
Antwort
The ability to focus on one conversation while still noticing personally important information in the background.
Karte 157
Frage
Failing to notice an obvious change in a scene?
Antwort
Change blindness.
Karte 158
Frage
Gestalt similarity principle?
Antwort
Elements that look alike tend to be grouped together.
Karte 159
Frage
Parallel lines seem to meet in the distance. Which depth cue?
Antwort
Linear perspective.
Karte 160
Frage
Perceptual constancy?
Antwort
Seeing an object's size, shape, or color as stable despite changing sensory images.
Karte 161
Frage
Perceptual set?
Antwort
A readiness to perceive something in a particular way because of expectations or context.
Karte 162
Frage
Gestalt closure principle?
Antwort
The mind fills gaps to perceive a complete object.
Karte 163
Frage
One object blocks part of another. Which seems closer?
Antwort
The blocking object, using interposition.
Karte 164
Frage
Apparent motion?
Antwort
The perception of movement created by rapidly presented stationary images or lights.
Karte 165
Frage
Availability heuristic?
Antwort
Judging likelihood by how easily examples come to mind.
Karte 166
Frage
Divergent thinking?
Antwort
Generating many varied, original possibilities.
Karte 167
Frage
A hazy object appears farther away than a sharp object. Which depth cue?
Antwort
Relative clarity.
Karte 168
Frage
Prototype?
Antwort
A mental image of the most typical example of a category.
Karte 169
Frage
Ignoring how common an event is while focusing on a vivid description?
Antwort
Base-rate neglect, often tied to the representativeness heuristic.
Karte 170
Frage
Convergent thinking?
Antwort
Narrowing possibilities to the single best answer.
Karte 171
Frage
A textured surface looks denser and finer with distance. Which depth cue?
Antwort
Texture gradient.
Karte 172
Frage
Belief perseverance?
Antwort
Holding a belief even after the evidence that created it has been discredited.
Karte 173
Frage
Explicit memory?
Antwort
Conscious memory for facts and experiences.
Karte 174
Frage
Three stores in the multi-store model?
Antwort
Sensory memory, short-term memory, and long-term memory.
Karte 175
Frage
Seeing an object only in its usual role?
Antwort
Functional fixedness.
Karte 176
Frage
Mental set?
Antwort
Using a familiar solution strategy even when a different approach would work better.
Karte 177
Frage
Episodic memory?
Antwort
Explicit memory for personally experienced events.
Karte 178
Frage
Working memory?
Antwort
A limited-capacity system that briefly holds and actively manipulates information.
Karte 179
Frage
Insight?
Antwort
A sudden realization of a problem's solution.
Karte 180
Frage
Framing effect?
Antwort
Choices change when the same information is worded or presented differently.
Karte 181
Frage
Implicit memory?
Antwort
Learning that affects behavior without deliberate conscious recall.
Karte 182
Frage
Overconfidence bias?
Antwort
Being more certain about one's judgments than accuracy warrants.
Karte 183
Frage
Anchoring bias?
Antwort
Relying too heavily on the first number or idea encountered.
Karte 184
Frage
Schema in thinking?
Antwort
A mental framework that organizes knowledge and guides interpretation.
Karte 185
Frage
Procedural memory?
Antwort
Implicit memory for skills and habits.
Karte 186
Frage
Gambler's fallacy?
Antwort
The mistaken belief that a random outcome becomes due after a streak, even when trials are independent.
Karte 187
Frage
Sunk-cost fallacy?
Antwort
Continuing because of past investment even when future costs outweigh future benefits.
Karte 188
Frage
Executive functions?
Antwort
Mental processes that support planning, inhibition, flexible switching, and goal-directed control.
Karte 189
Frage
How can priming affect judgment?
Antwort
Recent exposure can make related ideas more accessible and subtly shape a later response.
Karte 190
Frage
Central executive in working memory?
Antwort
The attention-control component that coordinates verbal and visual-spatial processing.
Karte 191
Frage
Serial-position effect?
Antwort
People tend to recall the first and last items in a list better than the middle.
Karte 192
Frage
Semantic memory?
Antwort
Explicit memory for facts, meanings, and general knowledge.
Karte 193
Frage
Levels-of-processing principle?
Antwort
Deeper semantic processing usually produces stronger memory than shallow structural or sound-based processing.
Karte 194
Frage
Automatic processing?
Antwort
Encoding information with little conscious effort, such as space, time, or well-practiced meanings.
Karte 195
Frage
Maintenance rehearsal?
Antwort
Repeating information to keep it active, usually without adding much meaning.
Karte 196
Frage
Prospective memory?
Antwort
Remembering to carry out an intended action in the future.
Karte 197
Frage
Primacy effect?
Antwort
Better memory for early list items, often because they receive more rehearsal.
Karte 198
Frage
Long-term memory?
Antwort
A relatively durable, large-capacity store of knowledge, experiences, and skills.
Karte 199
Frage
Highly superior autobiographical memory?
Antwort
An unusual ability to recall extensive personal events and dates with exceptional accuracy.
Karte 200
Frage
Effortful processing?
Antwort
Encoding that requires attention and deliberate work.
Karte 201
Frage
Elaborative rehearsal?
Antwort
Linking new information to meaning, examples, or existing knowledge.
Karte 202
Frage
Memory consolidation?
Antwort
The process that stabilizes a memory after learning.
Karte 203
Frage
Recency effect?
Antwort
Better immediate memory for the last list items because they remain active.
Karte 204
Frage
Spacing effect?
Antwort
Learning lasts longer when study is distributed over time rather than massed into one session.
Karte 205
Frage
Testing effect?
Antwort
Actively retrieving information improves later memory more than rereading alone.
Karte 206
Frage
Chunking?
Antwort
Organizing separate pieces of information into meaningful units.
Karte 207
Frage
Mnemonic?
Antwort
A structured memory aid that links material to an image, phrase, location, or pattern.
Karte 208
Frage
Why organize material into a hierarchy?
Antwort
Grouping broad ideas above narrower details makes relationships easier to encode and retrieve.
Karte 209
Frage
How can a schema help encoding?
Antwort
It supplies an existing framework that organizes and connects new information.
Karte 210
Frage
Students reread or practice retrieval, then take the same delayed test. What are the independent and dependent variables?
Antwort
The study method is independent; delayed-test performance is dependent.
Karte 211
Frage
Iconic memory?
Antwort
A very brief visual sensory memory.
Karte 212
Frage
Recall?
Antwort
Retrieving information with few external cues, as in an essay question.
Karte 213
Frage
Retrieval cue?
Antwort
A stimulus linked to a memory that helps bring it to awareness.
Karte 214
Frage
Encoding-specificity principle?
Antwort
Retrieval improves when cues at recall match cues present during encoding.
Karte 215
Frage
Context-dependent memory?
Antwort
Recall can improve in the same external environment where learning occurred.
Karte 216
Frage
Does the hippocampus permanently store every explicit memory?
Antwort
No. It helps form and consolidate new explicit memories, which later depend on distributed cortical networks.
Karte 217
Frage
Echoic memory?
Antwort
A brief auditory sensory memory that lasts longer than iconic memory.
Karte 218
Frage
Anterograde amnesia?
Antwort
Difficulty forming new long-term explicit memories after the onset of damage or illness.
Karte 219
Frage
Phonological loop?
Antwort
The working-memory component that briefly holds and rehearses verbal or sound information.
Karte 220
Frage
Cerebellum's memory role?
Antwort
It supports procedural learning and some classically conditioned responses.
Karte 221
Frage
Why is short-term memory described as limited?
Antwort
It can hold only a small amount of information without rehearsal or chunking.
Karte 222
Frage
Retrograde amnesia?
Antwort
Loss of memories formed before the onset of damage or illness.
Karte 223
Frage
Why are events tied to your own life often easier to remember?
Antwort
The self-reference effect makes information connected to oneself more memorable.
Karte 224
Frage
How can the amygdala affect memory?
Antwort
Emotional arousal can strengthen consolidation of emotionally significant events.
Karte 225
Frage
Visuospatial sketchpad?
Antwort
The working-memory component that holds and manipulates visual and spatial information.
Karte 226
Frage
Long-term potentiation?
Antwort
A lasting increase in synaptic efficiency after repeated activation, associated with learning and memory.
Karte 227
Frage
Infantile amnesia?
Antwort
The typical inability to recall autobiographical events from the first few years of life.
Karte 228
Frage
Alzheimer's disease?
Antwort
A progressive brain disorder that gradually impairs memory, reasoning, and daily functioning.
Karte 229
Frage
Scores are
2, 4, 4, 7, 9. What are the mode and range?Antwort
The mode is 4, and the range is 7 because
9 - 2 = 7.Karte 230
Frage
Recognition?
Antwort
Identifying previously learned information, as in selecting a familiar answer.
Karte 231
Frage
Why is memory called reconstructive?
Antwort
Recall rebuilds an event from stored details, schemas, expectations, and later information.
Karte 232
Frage
Storage decay?
Antwort
A memory trace weakens over time, especially when it isn't used.
Karte 233
Frage
State-dependent memory?
Antwort
Recall can improve when a person's internal state matches the state during learning.
Karte 234
Frage
Relearning?
Antwort
Measuring memory by how much faster material is learned again.
Karte 235
Frage
Misinformation effect?
Antwort
Misleading information after an event changes memory of the event.
Karte 236
Frage
A student recalls more in the original classroom. What claim is supported?
Antwort
Matching environmental cues can aid retrieval; the setting didn't necessarily improve storage.
Karte 237
Frage
Mood-congruent memory?
Antwort
A current mood makes similarly toned memories easier to retrieve.
Karte 238
Frage
Priming?
Antwort
Exposure to one stimulus unconsciously influences the response to a later stimulus.
Karte 239
Frage
Tip-of-the-tongue state?
Antwort
A temporary retrieval failure accompanied by a feeling that the answer is known.
Karte 240
Frage
Why does retrieval practice strengthen memory?
Antwort
Each successful retrieval reinforces access routes and reveals what still needs study.
Karte 241
Frage
Class A scores cluster near 80; Class B has the same mean but scores spread from 50 to 100. Which class has the larger standard deviation?
Antwort
Class B, because its scores vary farther from the mean.
Karte 242
Frage
Metacognition?
Antwort
Monitoring and regulating one's own thinking and learning.
Karte 243
Frage
Source amnesia?
Antwort
Remembering information but misremembering where it came from.
Karte 244
Frage
Test standardization?
Antwort
Administering a test consistently and establishing norms from a representative sample.
Karte 245
Frage
Reliability?
Antwort
The consistency of a measurement across time, items, or scorers.
Karte 246
Frage
Stereotype threat?
Antwort
Concern about confirming a negative group stereotype can interfere with performance.
Karte 247
Frage
General intelligence, or g?
Antwort
A broad mental ability proposed to contribute to performance across many cognitive tasks.
Karte 248
Frage
Encoding failure?
Antwort
Information never entered memory well enough to be stored, often because attention was weak.
Karte 249
Frage
Validity?
Antwort
The extent to which evidence supports the interpretation and use of a test score.
Karte 250
Frage
Proactive interference?
Antwort
Older learning disrupts recall of newer information.
Karte 251
Frage
Imagination inflation?
Antwort
Repeatedly imagining an event increases confidence that it really happened.
Karte 252
Frage
A forgetting curve drops sharply soon after learning, then flattens. What does this pattern show?
Antwort
Forgetting is fastest soon after learning and slows over time.
Karte 253
Frage
Retrieval failure?
Antwort
Stored information is temporarily inaccessible because effective cues are missing.
Karte 254
Frage
Retroactive interference?
Antwort
Newer learning disrupts recall of older information.
Karte 255
Frage
A confident witness recalls a detail introduced after the event. Best conclusion?
Antwort
Confidence doesn't guarantee accuracy; post-event misinformation may have altered the memory.
Karte 256
Frage
Repression in psychodynamic theory?
Antwort
The proposed unconscious blocking of distressing memories or impulses from awareness.
Karte 257
Frage
Flashbulb memory?
Antwort
A vivid memory for learning about an emotional event; confidence can remain high even when details change.
Karte 258
Frage
A study defines memory accuracy as the number of 20 words recalled after 24 hours. What design element is this?
Antwort
An operational definition of memory accuracy.
Karte 259
Frage
A score is at the 84th percentile. What does that mean?
Antwort
It is equal to or higher than about 84% of scores in the reference group.
Karte 260
Frage
Stereotype lift?
Antwort
A performance boost that can occur when a negative stereotype targets another group, making one's own group seem comparatively advantaged.
Karte 261
Frage
Achievement test?
Antwort
An assessment of knowledge or skills already learned.
Karte 262
Frage
Construct validity?
Antwort
How well evidence shows that a test measures the psychological construct it claims to measure.
Karte 263
Frage
Test–retest reliability?
Antwort
Consistency of scores when the same assessment is administered to the same people at different times.
Karte 264
Frage
Why can't historical group differences on intelligence tests justify discriminatory policy?
Antwort
Scores reflect testing conditions and social opportunity as well as measured ability; group averages don't define individuals or prove biological causation.
Karte 265
Frage
Multiple-abilities view of intelligence?
Antwort
Intelligence includes several partly distinct abilities rather than one general capacity alone.
Karte 266
Frage
Aptitude test?
Antwort
An assessment intended to predict capacity to learn or perform in the future.
Karte 267
Frage
Traditional IQ formula?
Antwort
Mental age divided by chronological age, multiplied by 100. Modern tests use age-based norms instead.
Karte 268
Frage
Predictive validity?
Antwort
How well a test score forecasts a relevant later outcome.
Karte 269
Frage
What does a normal score distribution look like?
Antwort
Most scores cluster near the mean, with fewer scores toward either extreme.
Karte 270
Frage
Split-half reliability?
Antwort
Consistency between two comparable halves of the same assessment.
Karte 271
Frage
Two groups have different average test scores. What conclusion is not justified?
Antwort
That every member differs or that biology caused the gap; within-group variation and social conditions matter.
Karte 272
Frage
Flynn effect?
Antwort
Average intelligence-test scores have risen across generations in many populations, pointing to environmental influence.
Karte 273
Frage
A student treats mistakes as information and changes study strategies. Which mindset does this show?
Antwort
A growth mindset; a fixed mindset treats ability as largely unchangeable.
Karte 274
Frage
Continuous versus stage development?
Antwort
Continuous views emphasize gradual change; stage views describe distinct qualitative shifts.
Karte 275
Frage
How can prenatal environment affect later development?
Antwort
Nutrition, stress, illness, and substance exposure can influence physical and neural development before birth.
Karte 276
Frage
Teratogen?
Antwort
An environmental agent that can disrupt prenatal development, with effects depending on dose, timing, and susceptibility.
Karte 277
Frage
Maturation?
Antwort
Biologically guided growth processes that unfold in a generally predictable sequence.
Karte 278
Frage
Stability–change question in development?
Antwort
It asks which traits persist across life and which change with age or experience.
Karte 279
Frage
A researcher predicts that students who sleep at least eight hours will recall more words than students who sleep less. Why is this hypothesis falsifiable?
Antwort
The groups and recall outcome can be measured, so evidence could show that the predicted difference does not occur.
Karte 280
Frage
Which method best tests whether a new study routine causes higher quiz scores?
Antwort
An experiment that manipulates the routine and randomly assigns participants, because it can support a causal conclusion.
Karte 281
Frage
Why do motor milestones follow a common order but different timing?
Antwort
Maturation shapes the sequence, while biology and experience influence pace.
Karte 282
Frage
Fine versus gross motor skills?
Antwort
Fine skills use small, precise movements; gross skills use larger muscle groups and whole-body movement.
Karte 283
Frage
Why are infant reflexes useful to researchers?
Antwort
Their presence and change can indicate early nervous-system development.
Karte 284
Frage
What did the visual-cliff procedure test?
Antwort
It tested whether infants would cross an apparent drop, providing evidence about depth perception and the influence of locomotor experience.
Karte 285
Frage
Puberty?
Antwort
The period of sexual maturation driven by hormonal and physical changes.
Karte 286
Frage
Sensitive period?
Antwort
A developmental window when experience has an especially strong effect, though learning may remain possible later.
Karte 287
Frage
What physical pattern commonly marks the start of adolescence?
Antwort
A puberty-related growth spurt, with rapid increases in height and weight.
Karte 288
Frage
Primary versus secondary sex characteristics?
Antwort
Primary characteristics are reproductive organs and functions; secondary characteristics are puberty-related traits not directly required for reproduction.
Karte 289
Frage
Which method best measures the relationship between adolescents' sleep duration and mood without assigning sleep schedules?
Antwort
A correlational study, because both variables are measured rather than manipulated.
Karte 290
Frage
Older adults score lower than younger adults in one same-time comparison. Which design and alternative explanation limit an aging claim?
Antwort
The study is cross-sectional, and a cohort effect could explain the difference because the age groups grew up under different conditions.
Karte 291
Frage
Researchers test the same people yearly from ages 10 to 20. Which design is this, and what participant-loss risk should they track?
Antwort
A longitudinal design; attrition can bias the results if those who leave differ from those who remain.
Karte 292
Frage
Menarche?
Antwort
The first menstrual period.
Karte 293
Frage
Which method allows an intensive investigation of one person with an exceptionally rare developmental condition?
Antwort
A case study, which provides depth but may not generalize to a wider population.
Karte 294
Frage
About what percentage of scores in a normal distribution lie within one standard deviation of the mean?
Antwort
About 68%.
Karte 295
Frage
A prenatal exposure correlates with later difficulty. What limits a causal claim?
Antwort
Other parental, health, and environmental variables may account for the association.
Karte 296
Frage
Spermarche?
Antwort
The first ejaculation.
Karte 297
Frage
Which method combines results from many studies to estimate an overall effect?
Antwort
A meta-analysis, which statistically synthesizes findings across studies.
Karte 298
Frage
Imprinting?
Antwort
A rapid form of early learning in which some young animals form an attachment during a sensitive period.
Karte 299
Frage
Why can adolescent risk-taking increase?
Antwort
Reward systems develop earlier than the prefrontal control systems used for planning and inhibition.
Karte 300
Frage
Menopause?
Antwort
The natural end of menstrual cycles, diagnosed after 12 consecutive months without menstruation.
Karte 301
Frage
Which method records children's playground behavior without directing or changing it?
Antwort
Naturalistic observation.
Karte 302
Frage
How do mobility, flexibility, and reaction time typically change across later adulthood?
Antwort
They tend to decline gradually, although health, activity, and individual differences affect the pace.
Karte 303
Frage
Gender identity?
Antwort
A person's internal sense of their gender.
Karte 304
Frage
Gender role?
Antwort
A culture's expectations for behavior associated with gender.
Karte 305
Frage
Sex versus gender?
Antwort
Sex refers to biological traits; gender refers to identities, roles, and social meanings.
Karte 306
Frage
Common sensory change in later adulthood?
Antwort
Vision and hearing sensitivity often decline, though the degree varies widely.
Karte 307
Frage
Sexual orientation?
Antwort
A pattern of romantic or sexual attraction; it is distinct from gender identity.
Karte 308
Frage
Gender schema?
Antwort
A mental framework that organizes information and expectations about gender.
Karte 309
Frage
Best broad view of gender development?
Antwort
Biological, cognitive, social, and cultural influences interact.
Karte 310
Frage
Does normal aging cause uniform cognitive decline?
Antwort
No. Processing speed may slow, while knowledge and expertise can remain stable or grow.
Karte 311
Frage
Why shouldn't variation in gender identity or sexual orientation be treated as a disorder?
Antwort
Variation alone isn't evidence of dysfunction; distress often reflects stigma or discrimination rather than identity.
Karte 312
Frage
Schema in cognitive development?
Antwort
A mental framework used to organize and interpret experience.
Karte 313
Frage
Sensorimotor stage?
Antwort
Infants learn through sensory experience and action and develop object permanence.
Karte 314
Frage
Preoperational stage?
Antwort
Young children use symbols and language but often lack conservation and show egocentric thinking.
Karte 315
Frage
Assimilation?
Antwort
Fitting new information into an existing schema.
Karte 316
Frage
A learner cannot solve a puzzle alone but succeeds with a teacher's hints. Where is the task?
Antwort
In the learner's zone of proximal development.
Karte 317
Frage
Animism in preoperational thought?
Antwort
Attributing life, feelings, or intentions to inanimate objects.
Karte 318
Frage
Concrete operational stage?
Antwort
Children reason logically about concrete events and understand conservation.
Karte 319
Frage
Accommodation?
Antwort
Changing a schema when new information doesn't fit it.
Karte 320
Frage
Reversibility in cognitive development?
Antwort
Understanding that an operation can be mentally undone, a skill associated with concrete operational thought.
Karte 321
Frage
How can social learning shape gender expression?
Antwort
People observe models and receive reinforcement or punishment for gender-related behavior.
Karte 322
Frage
A child calls a zebra a horse because it fits an existing animal schema. Which process?
Antwort
Assimilation.
Karte 323
Frage
Language?
Antwort
A shared, rule-governed system of symbols used to communicate and generate ideas.
Karte 324
Frage
Cooing stage?
Antwort
Early vowel-like sounds that typically appear before babbling.
Karte 325
Frage
Babbling stage?
Antwort
Infants produce repeated speech-like sounds before meaningful words.
Karte 326
Frage
One-word stage?
Antwort
A child uses single words to express whole ideas.
Karte 327
Frage
Grammar?
Antwort
A language's system of rules for combining and interpreting symbols.
Karte 328
Frage
A child assumes everyone can see the picture visible only from the child's side of a model. Which limitation does this show?
Antwort
Egocentrism: difficulty taking another person's visual perspective.
Karte 329
Frage
Crystallized intelligence across adulthood?
Antwort
Accumulated knowledge and verbal skills often remain stable or increase.
Karte 330
Frage
A child revises an animal schema after learning that zebras aren't horses. Which process?
Antwort
Accommodation.
Karte 331
Frage
A teacher first models each step, then removes hints as the learner improves. What support strategy is this?
Antwort
Scaffolding.
Karte 332
Frage
A child predicts that someone will search where that person last saw a toy, not where the toy really is. Which ability does this show?
Antwort
Theory of mind: recognizing that another person can hold a different belief.
Karte 333
Frage
Fluid intelligence across adulthood?
Antwort
Speedy reasoning with novel problems often peaks earlier and may decline gradually.
Karte 334
Frage
An infant searches for a toy after it is covered by a cloth. Which ability does this show?
Antwort
Object permanence: understanding that the toy still exists when it cannot be seen.
Karte 335
Frage
Water is poured from a short glass into a taller, narrower glass, and a child says there is more water. Which concept is missing?
Antwort
Conservation: understanding that quantity remains the same despite a change in appearance.
Karte 336
Frage
Formal operational stage?
Antwort
Adolescents and adults can reason abstractly and test hypothetical possibilities.
Karte 337
Frage
Dementia?
Antwort
A broad syndrome involving cognitive decline that interferes with daily life; it is not an inevitable part of normal aging.
Karte 338
Frage
Phoneme?
Antwort
The smallest distinctive sound unit in a language.
Karte 339
Frage
Bronfenbrenner's ecological systems view?
Antwort
Development reflects interactions between a person and nested social environments over time.
Karte 340
Frage
Temperament?
Antwort
Early, biologically influenced patterns of emotional reactivity and self-regulation.
Karte 341
Frage
Attachment?
Antwort
An enduring emotional bond that supports proximity and security.
Karte 342
Frage
Erikson's infancy conflict?
Antwort
Trust versus mistrust: dependable care supports a basic sense of security.
Karte 343
Frage
Microsystem?
Antwort
Immediate settings and relationships, such as family, school, peers, and work.
Karte 344
Frage
Erikson's toddler conflict?
Antwort
Autonomy versus shame and doubt: supported self-control builds independence.
Karte 345
Frage
Erikson's early-childhood conflict?
Antwort
Initiative versus guilt: directing activities and plans supports purpose.
Karte 346
Frage
Erikson's school-age conflict?
Antwort
Industry versus inferiority: mastering valued skills supports competence.
Karte 347
Frage
Mesosystem?
Antwort
Connections among a person's microsystems, such as communication between family and school.
Karte 348
Frage
Erikson's adolescent conflict?
Antwort
Identity versus role confusion: exploring and integrating roles supports identity.
Karte 349
Frage
Erikson's young-adult conflict?
Antwort
Intimacy versus isolation: forming close, committed relationships.
Karte 350
Frage
Erikson's middle-adult conflict?
Antwort
Generativity versus stagnation: contributing to others and the next generation.
Karte 351
Frage
Exosystem?
Antwort
Settings that affect a person indirectly, such as a caregiver's workplace.
Karte 352
Frage
Morpheme?
Antwort
The smallest unit that carries meaning.
Karte 353
Frage
Telegraphic speech?
Antwort
Early short phrases that contain essential words while omitting smaller grammatical words.
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Karte 354
Frage
How do nonverbal gestures support language development?
Antwort
Pointing, gaze, expression, and movement communicate meaning before and alongside spoken words.
Karte 355
Frage
Macrosystem?
Antwort
The wider culture, values, laws, customs, and economic conditions surrounding development.
Karte 356
Frage
Semantics?
Antwort
The meanings of words and sentences.
Karte 357
Frage
A child says “goed” after learning the usual past-tense pattern. What is this?
Antwort
Overgeneralization: applying a language rule where an exception is required.
Karte 358
Frage
What does a sensitive period for language imply?
Antwort
Early exposure supports fluent development, though later learning remains possible.
Karte 359
Frage
Does language completely determine thought?
Antwort
No. Language can shape attention and categorization, but thought also occurs without words.
Karte 360
Frage
Syntax?
Antwort
Rules for arranging words into phrases and sentences.
Karte 361
Frage
A child explores while a caregiver is present, seeks contact at reunion, and is readily comforted. Which attachment pattern fits?
Antwort
Secure attachment.
Karte 362
Frage
How does the behavioral perspective explain behavior?
Antwort
It focuses on observable behavior learned through conditioning, reinforcement, punishment, and environmental cues.
Karte 363
Frage
Authoritative parenting?
Antwort
High warmth with clear, consistent expectations and age-appropriate autonomy.
Karte 364
Frage
Identity achievement?
Antwort
A person makes commitments after meaningful exploration.
Karte 365
Frage
Avoidant attachment pattern?
Antwort
The child shows little contact-seeking and tends to avoid or ignore the caregiver at reunion.
Karte 366
Frage
Classical conditioning?
Antwort
Learning that one stimulus predicts another, so a previously neutral stimulus elicits a response.
Karte 367
Frage
Unconditioned stimulus?
Antwort
A stimulus that naturally produces a response without prior learning.
Karte 368
Frage
Unconditioned response?
Antwort
The unlearned response naturally produced by an unconditioned stimulus.
Karte 369
Frage
Conditioned stimulus?
Antwort
A previously neutral stimulus that elicits a learned response after association.
Karte 370
Frage
Conditioned response?
Antwort
The learned response to a conditioned stimulus.
Karte 371
Frage
Acquisition in classical conditioning?
Antwort
The initial learning period when the neutral stimulus becomes associated with the unconditioned stimulus.
Karte 372
Frage
During acquisition, when should the conditioned stimulus usually appear relative to the unconditioned stimulus?
Antwort
The conditioned stimulus should appear shortly before the unconditioned stimulus so it predicts what comes next.
Karte 373
Frage
Authoritarian parenting?
Antwort
Low warmth with strict control and little discussion.
Karte 374
Frage
Identity diffusion?
Antwort
A person has neither actively explored alternatives nor made firm commitments.
Karte 375
Frage
Extinction in classical conditioning?
Antwort
The conditioned response weakens when the conditioned stimulus repeatedly appears without the unconditioned stimulus.
Karte 376
Frage
Anxious-resistant attachment pattern?
Antwort
The child seeks contact but remains distressed or resists comfort at reunion.
Karte 377
Frage
Permissive parenting?
Antwort
High warmth with few demands or limits.
Karte 378
Frage
Parallel play?
Antwort
Young children play beside one another with similar materials but little direct coordination.
Karte 379
Frage
Imaginary audience?
Antwort
An adolescent's belief that other people are constantly noticing and evaluating them.
Karte 380
Frage
Identity foreclosure?
Antwort
A person commits without exploring alternatives, often adopting others' expectations.
Karte 381
Frage
Disorganized attachment pattern?
Antwort
The child shows contradictory, confused, or fearful behavior without a consistent reunion strategy.
Karte 382
Frage
Neglectful parenting?
Antwort
Low warmth and low control or involvement.
Karte 383
Frage
Chronosystem?
Antwort
Life transitions and historical changes that alter development over time.
Karte 384
Frage
Why is pretend play developmentally useful?
Antwort
It lets children practice symbols, roles, perspective-taking, and social rules.
Karte 385
Frage
Personal fable?
Antwort
An adolescent's sense that their experiences are unique and that ordinary risks may not apply to them.
Karte 386
Frage
Identity moratorium?
Antwort
A person is actively exploring alternatives without yet making a stable commitment.
Karte 387
Frage
Best claim about adverse childhood experiences?
Antwort
They can raise later health and relationship risks, but they don't determine an individual's outcome.
Karte 388
Frage
Separation anxiety in infancy?
Antwort
Distress when a familiar caregiver leaves; it is common during part of typical development.
Karte 389
Frage
What did infant-monkey research suggest about attachment?
Antwort
Comforting physical contact can be a stronger attachment cue than food alone.
Karte 390
Frage
Which research method does the Strange Situation use to assess attachment behavior?
Antwort
Structured observation: researchers record behavior during standardized separations and reunions.
Karte 391
Frage
Emerging adulthood?
Antwort
A transitional period, often from the late teens through the twenties, marked by identity exploration and changing roles.
Karte 392
Frage
Social clock?
Antwort
Culturally shaped expectations about when major life events should occur.
Karte 393
Frage
Erikson's later-adult conflict?
Antwort
Integrity versus despair: evaluating life with acceptance rather than regret.
Karte 394
Frage
Possible selves?
Antwort
Mental images of who a person might become, hopes to become, or fears becoming.
Karte 395
Frage
Stimulus generalization?
Antwort
Stimuli similar to the conditioned stimulus also trigger the conditioned response.
Karte 396
Frage
Operant conditioning?
Antwort
Learning in which consequences change the future frequency of voluntary behavior.
Karte 397
Frage
Law of effect?
Antwort
Behaviors followed by satisfying consequences become more likely, while behaviors followed by unpleasant consequences become less likely.
Karte 398
Frage
Spontaneous recovery?
Antwort
An extinguished conditioned response briefly returns after a rest period.
Karte 399
Frage
Stimulus discrimination?
Antwort
Learning to respond differently to the conditioned stimulus and similar stimuli.
Karte 400
Frage
Reinforcement?
Antwort
Any consequence that increases a behavior.
Karte 401
Frage
Higher-order conditioning?
Antwort
An established conditioned stimulus helps a new neutral stimulus become conditioned without direct pairing with the original unconditioned stimulus.
Karte 402
Frage
Counterconditioning?
Antwort
Replacing an unwanted conditioned response by pairing the trigger with a new, incompatible response.
Karte 403
Frage
Habituation?
Antwort
A reduced response after repeated exposure to a harmless, unchanged stimulus.
Karte 404
Frage
Punishment?
Antwort
Any consequence that decreases a behavior.
Karte 405
Frage
Partial reinforcement?
Antwort
Reinforcing only some responses; learning is slower, but behavior resists extinction.
Karte 406
Frage
Why can taste aversion form after one delayed pairing?
Antwort
Biological preparedness makes certain food–illness associations especially easy to learn.
Karte 407
Frage
Most conditioning trials take 2–6 attempts, but one participant needs 24. What shape will the trial-count distribution likely have?
Antwort
It will be right-skewed because the unusually high value stretches the upper tail.
Karte 408
Frage
Participants may encounter distressing images in a learning study. What must an institutional review board evaluate before approval?
Antwort
Whether the scientific value justifies the risks and whether safeguards reduce those risks to an acceptable level.
Karte 409
Frage
Fixed-ratio schedule?
Antwort
Reinforcement follows a set number of responses.
Karte 410
Frage
Observational learning?
Antwort
Learning by watching others and the consequences they receive.
Karte 411
Frage
A teacher adds praise after completed homework, and homework completion increases. Which consequence is this?
Antwort
Positive reinforcement.
Karte 412
Frage
Primary reinforcer?
Antwort
A naturally rewarding stimulus tied to biological needs, such as food when hungry.
Karte 413
Frage
Variable-ratio schedule?
Antwort
Reinforcement follows an unpredictable number of responses, producing persistent responding.
Karte 414
Frage
Modeling?
Antwort
Performing a behavior after observing it in another person.
Karte 415
Frage
Which response pattern is typical of a fixed-ratio schedule?
Antwort
A high response rate followed by a brief pause after each reward.
Karte 416
Frage
Fastening a seat belt stops an unpleasant alarm, making future fastening more likely. Which consequence is this?
Antwort
Negative reinforcement.
Karte 417
Frage
Conditioned reinforcer?
Antwort
A learned reward that gains value through association, such as money or praise.
Karte 418
Frage
A child sees a classmate praised for sharing and then shares more often. Which process may explain the change?
Antwort
Vicarious reinforcement.
Karte 419
Frage
Fixed-interval schedule?
Antwort
The first response after a set amount of time is reinforced.
Karte 420
Frage
Which response pattern is typical of a variable-ratio schedule?
Antwort
A high, steady response rate with little or no pause after rewards.
Karte 421
Frage
A driver receives a fine, and speeding decreases. Which consequence is this?
Antwort
Positive punishment.
Karte 422
Frage
Shaping?
Antwort
Reinforcing successive approximations toward a target behavior.
Karte 423
Frage
Extinction in operant conditioning?
Antwort
A behavior weakens when it no longer produces reinforcement.
Karte 424
Frage
Variable-interval schedule?
Antwort
The first response after an unpredictable amount of time is reinforced.
Karte 425
Frage
A teenager loses gaming access, and missed curfews decrease. Which consequence is this?
Antwort
Negative punishment.
Karte 426
Frage
Learned helplessness?
Antwort
After repeated uncontrollable negative events, a person or animal stops trying to escape even when escape becomes possible.
Karte 427
Frage
Continuous reinforcement?
Antwort
Reinforcing every occurrence of a behavior; learning is fast, but extinction is also fast.
Karte 428
Frage
A response record rises slowly after each reward, then accelerates as the next fixed time approaches. Which schedule produced this scalloped pattern?
Antwort
A fixed-interval schedule.
Karte 429
Frage
Discriminative stimulus?
Antwort
A cue that signals when a particular response is likely to be reinforced.
Karte 430
Frage
Operant generalization versus discrimination?
Antwort
Generalization spreads a learned response to similar cues; discrimination limits it to cues that signal reinforcement.
Karte 431
Frage
Instinctive drift?
Antwort
A learned behavior shifts toward an animal's biologically predisposed behavior.
Karte 432
Frage
Which response pattern is typical of a variable-interval schedule?
Antwort
A steady, moderate response rate because reinforcement can become available at unpredictable times.
Karte 433
Frage
How can superstitious behavior develop through operant conditioning?
Antwort
A coincidental reward can reinforce a behavior that didn't actually cause the outcome.
Karte 434
Frage
How does similarity to a model affect observational learning?
Antwort
Observers are often more likely to attend to and imitate models they see as similar or relevant.
Karte 435
Frage
Vicarious conditioning?
Antwort
Learning an emotional response by observing another person's reaction to a stimulus.
Karte 436
Frage
A rat makes 12, 13, 11, and 12 responses in four equal time blocks, with rewards delivered at unpredictable times. Which schedule best fits this steady pattern?
Antwort
A variable-interval schedule.
Karte 437
Frage
Children imitate a rewarded model more than a punished model. Supported claim?
Antwort
Observed consequences can influence whether learned behavior is performed.
Karte 438
Frage
Why randomly assign children to watch either an aggressive or a calm model?
Antwort
Random assignment helps balance preexisting differences between groups, strengthening a causal inference about the model's effect.
Karte 439
Frage
Latent learning?
Antwort
Learning that occurs without obvious reinforcement and appears later when there is an incentive.
Karte 440
Frage
Cognitive map?
Antwort
A mental representation of the layout of an environment.
Karte 441
Frage
Insight learning?
Antwort
A sudden cognitive solution without visible trial-and-error steps.
Karte 442
Frage
Biological preparedness?
Antwort
An evolved readiness to learn some associations more easily than others.
Karte 443
Frage
What can mirror-neuron activity show?
Antwort
Some neural systems respond during both action and observation, though this alone doesn't explain all imitation or empathy.
Karte 444
Frage
Attribution?
Antwort
An explanation for the cause of a person's behavior or an event.
Karte 445
Frage
Attitude?
Antwort
An evaluation of a person, object, issue, or behavior, involving beliefs, feelings, and action tendencies.
Karte 446
Frage
Upward social comparison?
Antwort
Comparing oneself with someone doing better, which can inspire improvement or reduce satisfaction.
Karte 447
Frage
Optimistic explanatory style?
Antwort
Explaining setbacks as temporary, specific, and changeable rather than permanent and global.
Karte 448
Frage
Situational attribution?
Antwort
Explaining behavior through external circumstances or social context.
Karte 449
Frage
A person who values health keeps vaping and feels pressure to change either the behavior or the belief. What is this discomfort?
Antwort
Cognitive dissonance.
Karte 450
Frage
Downward social comparison?
Antwort
Comparing oneself with someone doing worse, which can protect self-evaluation.
Karte 451
Frage
Internal locus of control?
Antwort
The belief that one's actions strongly influence outcomes.
Karte 452
Frage
Dispositional attribution?
Antwort
Explaining behavior through internal traits, motives, or abilities.
Karte 453
Frage
Pessimistic explanatory style?
Antwort
Explaining setbacks as lasting, widespread, and rooted in personal failure.
Karte 454
Frage
Relative deprivation?
Antwort
Feeling disadvantaged by comparing one's situation with the situation one believes others have.
Karte 455
Frage
External locus of control?
Antwort
The belief that outcomes mainly depend on luck, fate, or powerful outside forces.
Karte 456
Frage
Fundamental attribution error?
Antwort
Overestimating personality and underestimating the situation when explaining someone else's behavior.
Karte 457
Frage
Halo effect?
Antwort
One favorable trait shapes an overly positive overall judgment of a person.
Karte 458
Frage
Self-fulfilling prophecy?
Antwort
An expectation changes behavior in ways that help make the expected outcome occur.
Karte 459
Frage
Mere-exposure effect?
Antwort
Repeated exposure to a neutral stimulus can increase liking.
Karte 460
Frage
A person blames their own lateness on traffic but another person's lateness on carelessness. Which attribution pattern is this?
Antwort
The actor–observer difference.
Karte 461
Frage
A voter compares evidence and checks the logic of a policy argument. Which persuasion route is being used?
Antwort
The central route.
Karte 462
Frage
Effort justification?
Antwort
Valuing an outcome more after investing substantial effort in it, which reduces dissonance.
Karte 463
Frage
Stereotype?
Antwort
A generalized belief about members of a group.
Karte 464
Frage
A student credits skill for an A but blames an unfair test for an F. Which bias does this show?
Antwort
Self-serving bias.
Karte 465
Frage
A shopper favors an unfamiliar product because a popular celebrity endorses it. Which persuasion route is being used?
Antwort
The peripheral route.
Karte 466
Frage
Someone praises a dull task for a tiny reward, then reports liking it more. Which dissonance principle fits?
Antwort
Insufficient justification: the small reward provides too little external explanation, so attitude change reduces dissonance.
Karte 467
Frage
Prejudice?
Antwort
An unjustified attitude or emotional response toward a group and its members.
Karte 468
Frage
The same 40 workers complete equal-length tasks under both workloads:
Workload Errors Low 2 High 8 Which attribution is better supported?
Antwort
A situational attribution is better supported: with the same workers and equal exposure, the high-workload condition has more errors, though the table alone doesn't prove causation.
Karte 469
Frage
Why does source credibility affect persuasion?
Antwort
People are more likely to accept a message from a source seen as knowledgeable and trustworthy.
Karte 470
Frage
Conformity?
Antwort
Adjusting behavior or beliefs to match a group.
Karte 471
Frage
Several witnesses each wait for someone else to help during an emergency. Which effect is this?
Antwort
The bystander effect.
Karte 472
Frage
Diffusion of responsibility?
Antwort
Each person feels less personally responsible when others are available to act.
Karte 473
Frage
How can taking on a role affect attitude?
Antwort
Repeated role-consistent behavior can gradually shift beliefs and self-perception.
Karte 474
Frage
In-group bias?
Antwort
Favoring one's own group over other groups.
Karte 475
Frage
After agreeing to display a small safety sticker, a resident later agrees to place a large sign. Which technique is this?
Antwort
The foot-in-the-door technique.
Karte 476
Frage
A researcher recruits the first 60 students leaving one school cafeteria. What sampling method is this, and what is the main limit?
Antwort
Convenience sampling; the sample may not represent the school's students or a broader population as well as a random sample would.
Karte 477
Frage
When do attitudes best predict behavior?
Antwort
When the attitude is specific, accessible, personally important, and social pressure is limited.
Karte 478
Frage
Discrimination?
Antwort
Unjustified behavior toward people because of group membership.
Karte 479
Frage
Out-group homogeneity effect?
Antwort
Perceiving members of another group as more alike than members of one's own group.
Karte 480
Frage
After refusing an extreme request, a person agrees to a smaller related request. Which technique is this?
Antwort
The door-in-the-face technique.
Karte 481
Frage
A study finds r = +0.72 between attention to message evidence and attitude change. What does the coefficient show?
Antwort
A strong positive association: greater attention tends to accompany greater attitude change, but the correlation does not establish causation.
Karte 482
Frage
Persuasion ratings cluster near 2 and 9 on a 10-point scale, with few scores near 5. What distribution shape does this suggest?
Antwort
A bimodal distribution, with two distinct peaks.
Karte 483
Frage
Just-world belief?
Antwort
The assumption that people generally get what they deserve, which can encourage victim blaming.
Karte 484
Frage
Implicit attitude?
Antwort
An automatic evaluation that can affect responses without deliberate awareness.
Karte 485
Frage
Ethnocentrism?
Antwort
Judging other cultures by the standards of one's own culture and treating one's own as superior.
Karte 486
Frage
How do confirmation bias and belief perseverance maintain an attitude?
Antwort
People may favor supporting evidence and retain the belief even after its original support is discredited.
Karte 487
Frage
Normative social influence?
Antwort
Conforming to gain approval or avoid rejection.
Karte 488
Frage
Psychodynamic view of personality?
Antwort
Unconscious conflicts and motives influence personality and behavior.
Karte 489
Frage
Norm of reciprocity?
Antwort
The expectation that people should return help or favors.
Karte 490
Frage
Individualism?
Antwort
A cultural orientation that gives greater priority to personal goals, autonomy, and individual identity.
Karte 491
Frage
Informational social influence?
Antwort
Conforming because the group is treated as a source of accurate information.
Karte 492
Frage
Id?
Antwort
The psychodynamic component driven by immediate gratification and the pleasure principle.
Karte 493
Frage
Altruism?
Antwort
Helping intended to benefit another person without requiring a personal reward.
Karte 494
Frage
Social norm?
Antwort
A group's shared expectation about acceptable behavior.
Karte 495
Frage
What tends to increase conformity?
Antwort
Unanimity, group size up to a point, public responses, ambiguity, and group importance.
Karte 496
Frage
Ego?
Antwort
The psychodynamic component that manages reality and balances competing demands.
Karte 497
Frage
A skilled runner improves before a crowd, but a beginner makes more errors. Which group effect fits?
Antwort
Social facilitation: an audience strengthens the dominant response.
Karte 498
Frage
Collectivism?
Antwort
A cultural orientation that gives greater priority to group goals, interdependence, and shared identity.
Karte 499
Frage
Obedience?
Antwort
Changing behavior in response to a direct command from an authority.
Karte 500
Frage
Superego?
Antwort
The psychodynamic component representing internalized moral standards.
Karte 501
Frage
A person continues acting as if a painful diagnosis cannot be real despite clear evidence. Which defense mechanism fits?
Antwort
Denial.
Karte 502
Frage
Social-responsibility norm?
Antwort
The expectation that people should help those who depend on them or need assistance.
Karte 503
Frage
How does proximity affect attraction?
Antwort
Frequent contact creates opportunities for familiarity and relationship development.
Karte 504
Frage
What tends to increase obedience?
Antwort
A legitimate nearby authority, gradual escalation, institutional support, and distance from the affected person.
Karte 505
Frage
After an argument with a supervisor, an employee snaps at a roommate. Which defense mechanism fits?
Antwort
Displacement.
Karte 506
Frage
Social loafing?
Antwort
Exerting less effort when individual contributions to a group task aren't identifiable.
Karte 507
Frage
Multiculturalism?
Antwort
Recognizing and supporting distinct cultural identities within a shared society or institution.
Karte 508
Frage
How does similarity affect attraction?
Antwort
Shared attitudes, values, and interests often increase liking.
Karte 509
Frage
A person who feels hostile insists that everyone else is hostile toward them. Which defense mechanism fits?
Antwort
Projection.
Karte 510
Frage
Helping falls as group size rises. Best explanation?
Antwort
Responsibility diffuses across more bystanders; the result doesn't show that groups eliminate empathy.
Karte 511
Frage
Deindividuation?
Antwort
Reduced self-awareness and restraint in an anonymous or arousing group setting.
Karte 512
Frage
Group polarization?
Antwort
Discussion strengthens the group's initial average tendency.
Karte 513
Frage
After being rejected, an applicant says the opportunity was worthless anyway. Which defense mechanism fits?
Antwort
Rationalization.
Karte 514
Frage
A cohesive team ignores warnings and pressures doubters to preserve agreement. Which process is this?
Antwort
Groupthink.
Karte 515
Frage
Pluralistic ignorance?
Antwort
People privately reject a norm or perceive danger but assume others' calm behavior means it is accepted or safe.
Karte 516
Frage
Social trap?
Antwort
Individuals pursue short-term self-interest that produces a worse long-term outcome for everyone.
Karte 517
Frage
Reaction formation?
Antwort
Expressing the opposite of an unacceptable impulse.
Karte 518
Frage
Superordinate goal?
Antwort
A shared goal that competing groups can reach only through cooperation.
Karte 519
Frage
False-consensus effect?
Antwort
Overestimating how widely other people share one's beliefs or behavior.
Karte 520
Frage
Industrial-organizational psychology?
Antwort
Applying psychological science to work, organizations, hiring, performance, and employee well-being.
Karte 521
Frage
Repression?
Antwort
Unconsciously blocking distressing thoughts or impulses from awareness.
Karte 522
Frage
Burnout?
Antwort
Work-related exhaustion, detachment or cynicism, and reduced sense of effectiveness after chronic stress.
Karte 523
Frage
Unconditional positive regard?
Antwort
Acceptance and respect that aren't dependent on meeting another person's conditions.
Karte 524
Frage
Trait?
Antwort
A relatively stable tendency to think, feel, or behave in a certain way.
Karte 525
Frage
Regression as a defense mechanism?
Antwort
Reverting to an earlier pattern of behavior when facing stress or conflict.
Karte 526
Frage
Reciprocal determinism?
Antwort
Behavior, personal factors, and environment influence one another.
Karte 527
Frage
Self-efficacy?
Antwort
Belief in one's ability to perform a specific task or meet a challenge.
Karte 528
Frage
Self-concept in humanistic theory?
Antwort
A person's organized understanding of who they are.
Karte 529
Frage
Sublimation as a defense mechanism?
Antwort
Redirecting an unacceptable impulse into a socially valued activity.
Karte 530
Frage
A person seeks novel ideas, art, and unfamiliar experiences. Which Big Five trait is most evident?
Antwort
Openness.
Karte 531
Frage
Personality inventory?
Antwort
A standardized self-report questionnaire used to measure traits or patterns.
Karte 532
Frage
Self-actualizing tendency?
Antwort
The humanistic idea that people are motivated to grow and fulfill their capacities.
Karte 533
Frage
Self-esteem?
Antwort
A person's overall evaluation of their worth or value.
Karte 534
Frage
Instinct in motivation research?
Antwort
An innate, typically fixed behavior pattern in nonhuman animals; this framework doesn't classify human motivation as instinctual.
Karte 535
Frage
A person plans carefully, meets deadlines, and follows through. Which Big Five trait is most evident?
Antwort
Conscientiousness.
Karte 536
Frage
Projective test?
Antwort
An ambiguous stimulus used to invite responses thought to reflect inner themes; reliability and validity can be limited.
Karte 537
Frage
How does factor analysis help trait research?
Antwort
It identifies clusters of correlated behaviors or questionnaire items that may reflect broader traits.
Karte 538
Frage
Drive-reduction theory?
Antwort
A physiological need creates arousal that motivates behavior to restore balance.
Karte 539
Frage
A person is sociable, assertive, and energized by group interaction. Which Big Five trait is most evident?
Antwort
Extraversion.
Karte 540
Frage
Person–situation debate?
Antwort
It asks how much behavior reflects stable traits versus changing contexts.
Karte 541
Frage
A training study reports Cohen's d = 0.65 for improvement in self-efficacy. What does this statistic describe?
Antwort
The standardized size of the group difference; 0.65 is commonly interpreted as a moderate effect, not proof that the result will matter equally in every setting.
Karte 542
Frage
Homeostasis?
Antwort
The body's tendency to maintain a stable internal state.
Karte 543
Frage
Incentive theory?
Antwort
External rewards or goals pull behavior toward them.
Karte 544
Frage
Big Five agreeableness?
Antwort
Compassion, trust, and cooperativeness.
Karte 545
Frage
A student retakes a questionnaire after an unusually low self-efficacy score and scores closer to their usual level. What statistical tendency may explain part of the change?
Antwort
Regression toward the mean: an extreme score is often followed by a less extreme score because temporary influences are unlikely to repeat exactly.
Karte 546
Frage
A student must choose between two appealing internships. Which motivational conflict is this?
Antwort
An approach–approach conflict.
Karte 547
Frage
Arousal theory of motivation?
Antwort
People seek a personally suitable level of stimulation.
Karte 548
Frage
Big Five emotional stability?
Antwort
A tendency toward calm and resilience; it is the inverse of neuroticism.
Karte 549
Frage
What regulates hunger?
Antwort
Biological signals such as ghrelin and leptin interact with learning, culture, stress, and food cues.
Karte 550
Frage
Three broad components of emotion?
Antwort
Physiological arousal, expressive behavior, and conscious experience or appraisal.
Karte 551
Frage
Self-determination theory?
Antwort
Motivation grows when autonomy, competence, and relatedness are supported.
Karte 552
Frage
Emotion regulation?
Antwort
Processes used to influence which emotions arise, when they arise, and how they are expressed.
Karte 553
Frage
Sensation-seeking?
Antwort
A tendency to pursue novel, varied, or intense experiences, sometimes despite risk.
Karte 554
Frage
Cognitive appraisal in emotion?
Antwort
Interpreting what an event means for one's goals, safety, or well-being.
Karte 555
Frage
Intrinsic motivation?
Antwort
Doing an activity for its own interest or satisfaction.
Karte 556
Frage
Display rules?
Antwort
Cultural norms that shape when and how emotions are expressed.
Karte 557
Frage
Arousal and performance relationship?
Antwort
Moderate arousal often supports difficult tasks, while higher arousal can help simple or well-learned tasks.
Karte 558
Frage
A promotion offers higher pay but requires an unwanted move. Which motivational conflict is this?
Antwort
An approach–avoidance conflict.
Karte 559
Frage
Extrinsic motivation?
Antwort
Doing an activity for an external reward or to avoid punishment.
Karte 560
Frage
Achievement motivation?
Antwort
The drive to meet standards, master tasks, and pursue success.
Karte 561
Frage
Four sensation-seeking dimensions?
Antwort
Thrill and adventure seeking, experience seeking, disinhibition, and boredom susceptibility.
Karte 562
Frage
A person must either pay a fine or complete an unpleasant course. Which motivational conflict is this?
Antwort
An avoidance–avoidance conflict.
Karte 563
Frage
Overjustification effect?
Antwort
Expected external rewards can reduce intrinsic interest in an activity already enjoyed.
Karte 564
Frage
Belongingness motivation?
Antwort
The drive to form and maintain stable, positive relationships with other people.
Karte 565
Frage
Study time changed after students chose their own topic:
Condition Mean minutes Assigned topic 34 Chosen topic 47 What is the observed mean difference?
Antwort
13 minutes more in the chosen-topic condition; the table alone does not show whether the difference is statistically significant.
Karte 566
Frage
Facial-feedback effect?
Antwort
Facial expressions can influence the emotion a person experiences.
Karte 567
Frage
Can bodily arousal occur before conscious interpretation?
Antwort
Yes. Some emotional responses begin quickly, while later appraisal shapes the experience.
Karte 568
Frage
A speaker reframes a racing heart as readiness rather than danger. Which emotion-regulation strategy is this?
Antwort
Cognitive reappraisal.
Karte 569
Frage
Broaden-and-build view?
Antwort
Positive emotion can widen attention and action possibilities, helping build lasting resources.
Karte 570
Frage
Which emotions often appear across cultures?
Antwort
Anger, disgust, sadness, happiness, surprise, and fear, though findings on universality are mixed.
Karte 571
Frage
How can the same arousal become different emotions?
Antwort
Context and cognitive interpretation can label similar physiological arousal differently.
Karte 572
Frage
Expressive suppression?
Antwort
Inhibiting the outward display of emotion after it has arisen.
Karte 573
Frage
How does acute stress affect the body?
Antwort
It activates sympathetic and hormonal responses that mobilize energy for immediate demands.
Karte 574
Frage
Cultures differ in public emotional expression. What shouldn't be concluded?
Antwort
That people in one culture don't experience the emotion; display rules can alter expression.
Karte 575
Frage
In a medication study, neither participants nor outcome raters know who receives the active drug or an inactive pill. What two safeguards are present?
Antwort
A placebo control and double-blinding, which reduce expectancy effects and observer bias.
Karte 576
Frage
A scatterplot rises from lower left to upper right, with points close to a line. What relationship does it show?
Antwort
A strong positive correlation: higher values of one variable tend to occur with higher values of the other.
Karte 577
Frage
Health psychology?
Antwort
The study of how biological, psychological, and social factors affect health and illness.
Karte 578
Frage
Positive psychology?
Antwort
The scientific study of strengths, well-being, and conditions that help people and communities thrive.
Karte 579
Frage
Stress?
Antwort
The process of appraising and responding to events viewed as threatening or demanding.
Karte 580
Frage
A study records stress ratings from 1 to 10 and also collects open-ended descriptions. Which data are quantitative and which are qualitative?
Antwort
The numeric ratings are quantitative; the written descriptions are qualitative.
Karte 581
Frage
Why do sleep, exercise, and nutrition matter to health psychology?
Antwort
They are behaviors that interact with stress and biology to influence health outcomes.
Karte 582
Frage
Resilience?
Antwort
Adapting or recovering after adversity; it is a process, not a guarantee of being unaffected.
Karte 583
Frage
Stressor?
Antwort
An event or condition that challenges a person's ability to cope.
Karte 584
Frage
General adaptation syndrome?
Antwort
A three-phase pattern of alarm, resistance, and exhaustion under prolonged stress.
Karte 585
Frage
A worker makes a schedule and asks for resources to reduce a controllable workload. Which coping approach is this?
Antwort
Problem-focused coping.
Karte 586
Frage
A stress study uses nonhuman animals. What ethical duties apply?
Antwort
Researchers need scientific justification, humane care, the least possible pain and distress, and oversight by an institutional animal care and use committee.
Karte 587
Frage
A student first judges whether an upcoming exam threatens an important goal. Which appraisal is this?
Antwort
Primary appraisal.
Karte 588
Frage
What happens during the alarm phase of general adaptation syndrome?
Antwort
A fight, flight, or freeze response mobilizes resources when the stressor is first encountered.
Karte 589
Frage
How can major trauma and daily hassles both create stress?
Antwort
One can overwhelm through intensity, while repeated smaller demands can accumulate over time.
Karte 590
Frage
A person uses breathing and social support to manage feelings about an unchangeable loss. Which coping approach is this?
Antwort
Emotion-focused coping.
Karte 591
Frage
The student next considers available study time, tutoring, and coping options. Which appraisal is this?
Antwort
Secondary appraisal.
Karte 592
Frage
Why can prolonged exhaustion increase illness risk?
Antwort
Stress resources are depleted, and sustained physiological activation can weaken health and immune function.
Karte 593
Frage
Adverse childhood experiences?
Antwort
Potentially traumatic childhood conditions linked with higher later health risks, without determining any one person's outcome.
Karte 594
Frage
How can social support protect health?
Antwort
It provides practical help, belonging, perspective, and a buffer against stress.
Karte 595
Frage
Eustress versus distress?
Antwort
Eustress is experienced as motivating or manageable; distress is experienced as harmful or overwhelming.
Karte 596
Frage
Tend-and-befriend response?
Antwort
Coping with stress by caring for needs and seeking supportive connection, a pattern observed especially among women.
Karte 597
Frage
Two interviewees say, “After the setback, I adjusted my plan” and “I recovered and kept working toward my goal.” Which well-being concept appears in both qualitative responses?
Antwort
Resilience; both accounts describe adapting or recovering after adversity.
Karte 598
Frage
Biofeedback?
Antwort
Using real-time information about bodily activity to learn voluntary regulation of that activity.
Karte 599
Frage
How does perceived control affect stress?
Antwort
A sense of control often reduces stress, while uncontrollability can intensify it.
Karte 600
Frage
Psychoneuroimmunology?
Antwort
The study of interactions among psychological processes, the nervous system, hormones, and immune function.
Karte 601
Frage
Subjective well-being?
Antwort
A person's life satisfaction together with the balance of positive and negative emotion.
Karte 602
Frage
Psychological disorder?
Antwort
A clinically significant disturbance in thought, emotion, or behavior that causes distress or impairment.
Karte 603
Frage
How can gratitude practice affect well-being?
Antwort
Regularly noticing valued experiences can increase positive emotion for some people, though effects vary.
Karte 604
Frage
A school survey samples 120 students from a population of 1,800 enrolled students. What are the sample and population?
Antwort
The 120 respondents are the sample; all 1,800 enrolled students are the target population.
Karte 605
Frage
Signature strengths?
Antwort
Character strengths that are especially central and natural to a person and can be used deliberately.
Karte 606
Frage
Biopsychosocial model?
Antwort
Biological, psychological, and sociocultural factors interact in health and disorder.
Karte 607
Frage
Six broad virtue categories in positive psychology?
Antwort
Wisdom, courage, humanity, justice, temperance, and transcendence.
Karte 608
Frage
Posttraumatic growth?
Antwort
Positive psychological change that can develop through struggling with trauma or major stress; it doesn't erase harm.
Karte 609
Frage
An optional well-being survey is completed mostly by students who already attend wellness clubs. How does this affect generalizability?
Antwort
Self-selection creates sampling bias, so the results may not generalize to students with different interests or experiences.
Karte 610
Frage
A survey asks people to report how often they exercise. What limitation should the researcher consider?
Antwort
Self-report can be distorted by inaccurate memory, question wording, or socially desirable answers.
Karte 611
Frage
A treatment comparison reports p = .03 with a preset alpha of .05. Is the result statistically significant?
Antwort
Yes. Because .03 is below .05, the result is statistically significant, though that does not show the effect is large or important.
Karte 612
Frage
A striking well-being result appears in one small study. What should happen before confidence grows?
Antwort
Independent replication and critical peer review should test whether the finding is reliable and the methods support the claim.
Karte 613
Frage
Biological explanation of disorder?
Antwort
It focuses on genetic, neural, hormonal, or other physiological factors.
Karte 614
Frage
Attention-deficit/hyperactivity disorder?
Antwort
A neurodevelopmental disorder involving developmentally inappropriate inattention and/or hyperactivity-impulsivity that impairs functioning.
Karte 615
Frage
Purpose of the DSM?
Antwort
It supplies shared diagnostic categories and criteria for communication, research, and treatment planning.
Karte 616
Frage
What must informed consent explain before people join a psychology study?
Antwort
The study's general nature, foreseeable risks and benefits, confidentiality limits, voluntary participation, and the right to withdraw. Research with minors also generally requires guardian permission and the child's assent.
Karte 617
Frage
Behavioral explanation of disorder?
Antwort
It focuses on maladaptive responses learned through conditioning or observation.
Karte 618
Frage
Autism spectrum disorder?
Antwort
A neurodevelopmental disorder involving differences in social communication and restricted or repetitive behavior, with varied support needs.
Karte 619
Frage
Schizophrenia's broad symptom areas?
Antwort
Delusions, hallucinations, disorganized thought or speech, disorganized movement, and negative symptoms.
Karte 620
Frage
Major depressive disorder?
Antwort
A sustained depressive episode with mood, cognitive, physical, and motivational changes that impair functioning.
Karte 621
Frage
Specific phobia?
Antwort
Intense, persistent fear of a particular object or situation that leads to avoidance or distress.
Karte 622
Frage
Obsessive-compulsive disorder?
Antwort
Obsessions, compulsions, or both consume time or cause significant distress or impairment.
Karte 623
Frage
Dissociative amnesia?
Antwort
Inability to recall important autobiographical information, usually related to trauma or stress, beyond ordinary forgetting.
Karte 624
Frage
Bipolar I disorder?
Antwort
A bipolar disorder defined by at least one full manic episode, often with depressive episodes.
Karte 625
Frage
Posttraumatic stress disorder?
Antwort
Persistent intrusion, avoidance, negative mood or thinking, and heightened arousal after trauma exposure.
Karte 626
Frage
Anorexia nervosa?
Antwort
Persistent energy restriction, significantly low body weight, intense fear of weight gain, and disturbed body experience.
Karte 627
Frage
Cognitive explanation of disorder?
Antwort
It focuses on maladaptive beliefs, interpretations, and thinking patterns.
Karte 628
Frage
Bipolar II disorder?
Antwort
A bipolar disorder involving hypomanic and major depressive episodes without a full manic episode.
Karte 629
Frage
Purpose of the ICD?
Antwort
The World Health Organization's classification system supplies internationally used codes and categories for health conditions, including mental disorders.
Karte 630
Frage
Bulimia nervosa?
Antwort
Repeated binge eating followed by compensatory behavior, with self-evaluation strongly influenced by body shape or weight.
Karte 631
Frage
What broadly defines a personality disorder pattern?
Antwort
An enduring, inflexible pattern that departs from cultural expectations, begins in adolescence or early adulthood, and causes distress or impairment.
Karte 632
Frage
Ataque de nervios?
Antwort
A culture-related syndrome, described especially in some Latin American and Caribbean communities, involving an acute episode of intense emotional distress and loss of control.
Karte 633
Frage
Psychodynamic explanation of disorder?
Antwort
It focuses on unconscious conflicts and early relationships.
Karte 634
Frage
Three considerations when identifying a psychological disorder?
Antwort
Dysfunction, experienced distress, and deviation from social norms, interpreted with cultural context.
Karte 635
Frage
When may deception be ethically considered in research, and what must follow?
Antwort
Only when justified, minimal-risk, and not replaceable by a practical alternative; researchers must debrief participants promptly and explain the deception.
Karte 636
Frage
Comorbidity?
Antwort
The presence of two or more disorders in the same person.
Karte 637
Frage
Humanistic explanation of distress?
Antwort
It focuses on blocked growth, incongruence, and conditions of worth.
Karte 638
Frage
Confidential versus anonymous research data?
Antwort
Confidential data can be linked to identities but are protected; anonymous data are collected without identifying links.
Karte 639
Frage
Stigma around mental disorder?
Antwort
Negative stereotypes and discrimination that can increase distress and discourage help-seeking.
Karte 640
Frage
Why must diagnosis consider culture?
Antwort
Norms affect how distress is expressed and interpreted, so behavior can't be judged outside its context.
Karte 641
Frage
Sociocultural explanation of disorder?
Antwort
It focuses on social roles, inequality, relationships, discrimination, and cultural context.
Karte 642
Frage
Two clinicians independently use the same criteria. What quality is being checked?
Antwort
Interrater reliability.
Karte 643
Frage
A category improves communication but overlaps another category. Balanced conclusion?
Antwort
Classification is useful, but boundaries and comorbidity limit the idea of perfectly separate disorders.
Karte 644
Frage
Best account of neurodevelopmental-disorder causes?
Antwort
Genetic, physiological, and environmental factors may interact; no single cause explains every case.
Karte 645
Frage
Evolutionary explanation of disorder?
Antwort
It asks whether a behavior or mental process reflects an adaptation, mismatch, or cost related to survival and reproduction.
Karte 646
Frage
Delusion?
Antwort
A firmly held false belief that persists despite strong contrary evidence and isn't explained by cultural context.
Karte 647
Frage
Agoraphobia?
Antwort
Intense fear of situations where escape or help may feel difficult, such as crowds, transit, open spaces, or being outside alone.
Karte 648
Frage
Best account of schizophrenia risk?
Antwort
Biological vulnerability, including genetic and neural factors, interacts with prenatal and later environmental stressors.
Karte 649
Frage
Eclectic approach to disorder?
Antwort
Using ideas or treatments from more than one psychological perspective when evidence and client needs support them.
Karte 650
Frage
Hallucination?
Antwort
A sensory perception without a matching external stimulus.
Karte 651
Frage
Panic disorder?
Antwort
Recurrent unexpected panic attacks followed by continuing concern or behavior change related to more attacks.
Karte 652
Frage
Best account of depressive-disorder causes?
Antwort
Biological vulnerability can interact with learning, cognition, relationships, culture, and stressful events.
Karte 653
Frage
Two people face the same stressor, but the person with greater underlying vulnerability develops symptoms. Which model fits?
Antwort
The diathesis–stress model.
Karte 654
Frage
Cluster A personality disorders?
Antwort
The odd or eccentric cluster: paranoid, schizoid, and schizotypal personality disorders.
Karte 655
Frage
What do psychotherapy meta-analyses generally find?
Antwort
Psychotherapy is effective on average, while outcomes vary by problem, method, therapist, and client.
Karte 656
Frage
Evidence-based treatment?
Antwort
Using the best research evidence together with clinical expertise and the client's needs, culture, and preferences.
Karte 657
Frage
Therapeutic alliance?
Antwort
A collaborative, trusting relationship in which client and therapist agree on goals and work.
Karte 658
Frage
Cultural humility in therapy?
Antwort
Ongoing self-reflection, respect, and willingness to learn from the client's cultural experience.
Karte 659
Frage
Deinstitutionalization?
Antwort
Moving many people from long-term psychiatric hospitals toward community-based care, aided partly by medication.
Karte 660
Frage
A client safely approaches a feared situation in planned steps instead of avoiding it. Which treatment method is this?
Antwort
Exposure therapy.
Karte 661
Frage
Nonmaleficence in therapy?
Antwort
Avoiding or minimizing harm.
Karte 662
Frage
Four medication categories in the course?
Antwort
Antidepressants, antianxiety drugs, lithium, and antipsychotic medications.
Karte 663
Frage
Depressive cognitive triad?
Antwort
Negative views of oneself, the world, and the future.
Karte 664
Frage
Applied behavior analysis?
Antwort
Using measured learning principles to change socially significant behavior.
Karte 665
Frage
Psychosurgery?
Antwort
Rare invasive treatment that alters brain tissue; modern use is tightly limited because effects can be irreversible.
Karte 666
Frage
Free association?
Antwort
A psychodynamic technique in which a client says whatever comes to mind to explore unconscious themes.
Karte 667
Frage
A client examines evidence for an automatic thought and develops a more accurate alternative. Which technique is this?
Antwort
Cognitive restructuring.
Karte 668
Frage
One advantage of group therapy?
Antwort
Members can receive support, feedback, and practice with others while learning they aren't alone.
Karte 669
Frage
Lobotomy?
Antwort
An obsolete form of psychosurgery that cut frontal-lobe connections and often caused severe, irreversible harm.
Karte 670
Frage
Best account of bipolar-disorder causes?
Antwort
Biological and genetic influences are important, while stress and social context can affect episodes.
Karte 671
Frage
Cognitive-behavioral therapy?
Antwort
Treatment that changes maladaptive thinking and behavior together.
Karte 672
Frage
Disorganized speech in schizophrenia?
Antwort
Speech becomes difficult to follow because ideas or words are connected in disordered ways.
Karte 673
Frage
Social anxiety disorder?
Antwort
Intense fear of scrutiny or negative evaluation in social situations.
Karte 674
Frage
Best account of obsessive-compulsive-disorder causes?
Antwort
Biological factors and learned relief from compulsions can combine with maladaptive beliefs.
Karte 675
Frage
Rational-emotive behavior therapy?
Antwort
A cognitive-behavioral approach that challenges rigid, irrational beliefs and builds more workable alternatives.
Karte 676
Frage
Dissociative fugue?
Antwort
Dissociative amnesia accompanied by unexpected travel or confusion about identity.
Karte 677
Frage
Cluster B personality disorders?
Antwort
The dramatic, emotional, or erratic cluster: antisocial, borderline, histrionic, and narcissistic personality disorders.
Karte 678
Frage
Best account of anxiety-disorder causes?
Antwort
Biological vulnerability, learned fear, avoidance, and maladaptive interpretation can interact.
Karte 679
Frage
Catatonia?
Antwort
Markedly disordered movement, which can include unusual excitement or profound lack of movement.
Karte 680
Frage
Manic episode?
Antwort
A distinct period of unusually elevated or irritable mood and increased energy severe enough to cause major impairment or require hospitalization.
Karte 681
Frage
Dissociative identity disorder?
Antwort
Disruption of identity involving distinct personality states and gaps in autobiographical memory.
Karte 682
Frage
Best account of feeding and eating disorder causes?
Antwort
Biological, cognitive, behavioral, family, social, and cultural factors can interact.
Karte 683
Frage
Cluster C personality disorders?
Antwort
The anxious or fearful cluster: avoidant, dependent, and obsessive-compulsive personality disorders.
Karte 684
Frage
Taijin kyofusho?
Antwort
A culture-related syndrome described in Japan involving intense fear that one's appearance, gaze, odor, or behavior will offend or embarrass other people.
Karte 685
Frage
Negative symptom of schizophrenia?
Antwort
A reduction in a typical function, such as emotional expression, speech, motivation, or movement.
Karte 686
Frage
What experiences are often linked with dissociative disorders?
Antwort
Severe trauma or stress, though diagnosis requires careful assessment and isn't inferred from trauma alone.
Karte 687
Frage
Hypomanic episode?
Antwort
A noticeable period of elevated or irritable mood and increased energy that is less severe and impairing than mania.
Karte 688
Frage
Generalized anxiety disorder?
Antwort
Persistent, hard-to-control anxiety and worry across several areas of life.
Karte 689
Frage
Hoarding disorder?
Antwort
Persistent difficulty discarding possessions, producing clutter that impairs the use of living spaces.
Karte 690
Frage
Best account of personality-disorder causes?
Antwort
Biological dispositions and long-term social, cultural, learning, and cognitive influences can interact.
Karte 691
Frage
Why can't one symptom establish a disorder?
Antwort
Diagnosis depends on a broader pattern, duration, distress or impairment, context, and alternative explanations.
Karte 692
Frage
Persistent depressive disorder?
Antwort
A chronic depressed mood with related symptoms lasting at least two years in adults or one year in children and adolescents.
Karte 693
Frage
Fidelity in therapy ethics?
Antwort
Maintaining trust, responsibility, and professional commitments.
Karte 694
Frage
Systematic desensitization?
Antwort
Gradual exposure to a fear hierarchy while practicing relaxation or another incompatible response.
Karte 695
Frage
Dream interpretation in psychodynamic therapy?
Antwort
Exploring possible personal meanings and unconscious themes in dreams, not treating dreams as objective facts.
Karte 696
Frage
Dialectical behavior therapy?
Antwort
A cognitive-behavioral approach that builds mindfulness, emotion regulation, distress tolerance, and relationship skills.
Karte 697
Frage
Integrity in therapy ethics?
Antwort
Being honest and accurate in professional work.
Karte 698
Frage
Aversion therapy?
Antwort
Pairing an unwanted behavior with an unpleasant stimulus to reduce the behavior.
Karte 699
Frage
Tardive dyskinesia?
Antwort
A movement disorder that can occur as a serious side effect of long-term antipsychotic medication.
Karte 700
Frage
ECT versus TMS?
Antwort
ECT induces a controlled seizure under anesthesia; TMS uses magnetic pulses without surgery. Both can treat selected conditions.
Karte 701
Frage
Respect for rights and dignity?
Antwort
Protecting autonomy, privacy, confidentiality, and fair treatment.
Karte 702
Frage
A clinic awards points for target behaviors, and clients exchange the points for privileges. Which method is this?
Antwort
A token economy.
Karte 703
Frage
A therapist emphasizes empathy, genuineness, active listening, and unconditional positive regard. Which approach is this?
Antwort
Person-centered therapy.
Karte 704
Frage
What can hypnosis treat, and what can't it reliably do?
Antwort
It can help some pain and anxiety; it can't reliably recover accurate memories or produce true age regression.
Karte 705
Frage
Medication and psychotherapy outperform either alone for some conditions. Best conclusion?
Antwort
Combined treatment can be useful for some clients, but the best plan depends on the condition and individual evidence.
705 Karten
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