Nature in the nature–nurture question?

Inherited biological influences on behavior and mental processes.

Central nervous system?

The brain and spinal cord, which process information and coordinate responses.

Main role of the spinal cord?

It carries messages between brain and body and organizes some reflexes.

Scores are 4, 6, 8, 10. What is the mean?

7, found by dividing the total of 28 by 4 scores.

Nurture in the nature–nurture question?

Environmental influences, such as family, culture, education, and experience.

Peripheral nervous system?

The nerves that connect the central nervous system with the rest of the body.

A rapid neural pathway that can produce a response through the spinal cord before conscious brain processing.

Reflex times are 180, 190, 210, 260, 410 milliseconds. What is the median?

210 milliseconds, the middle score after ordering the five values.

The proportion of variation in a trait within a population that is associated with genetic differences. It doesn't describe one person's trait.

Autonomic nervous system?

The peripheral division that regulates involuntary functions of glands and internal organs.

Evolutionary perspective on behavior?

It asks how natural selection may have favored psychological traits that helped survival or reproduction.

Why is eugenics scientifically and ethically invalid?

It misuses heredity claims to rank people and justify coercion, while ignoring environmental influence, human rights, and the complexity of traits.

Why isn't behavior explained by genes or environment alone?

They interact. A biological tendency can be strengthened, weakened, or redirected by experience.

Researchers compare a trait across biological relatives who share different amounts of DNA. Which method is this?

A family study; twin comparisons are one example, but shared environments still limit causal conclusions.

Traits that support survival or reproduction can become more common across generations.

Somatic nervous system?

The peripheral division that carries sensory information and controls voluntary skeletal-muscle movement.

They carry incoming information from sensory receptors toward the central nervous system.

Which design compares adoptees with both biological and adoptive relatives?

An adoption study, used to separate some hereditary and environmental similarities.

Twins show a strong trait correlation. What keeps this result from proving genetic causation?

Correlation doesn't isolate genes from shared environments or other confounding variables.

Sympathetic nervous system?

The autonomic division that mobilizes energy during challenge or threat.

Evidence shows a genetic risk predicts an outcome only under chronic stress. Best claim?

The outcome reflects a gene–environment interaction, not a purely genetic effect.

They carry outgoing commands from the central nervous system to muscles or glands.

Sleep duration and stress are correlated. What directionality problem limits a causal conclusion?

The result cannot show whether less sleep raises stress, stress reduces sleep, or both directions operate.

Parasympathetic nervous system?

The autonomic division that calms the body and supports rest, digestion, and recovery.

The neuron's stable negative charge when it isn't firing, maintained by unequal ion concentrations across the membrane.

Neurons within the central nervous system that process information and connect other neurons.

Adrenaline's behavioral role?

It helps mobilize the body during arousal and the fight-or-flight response.

Planning, judgment, impulse control, working memory, voluntary movement, and aspects of speech.

The minimum stimulation needed to trigger an action potential.

The large fiber tract that carries information between the cerebral hemispheres.

Leptin's role in eating?

It signals stored energy and helps reduce hunger.

Auditory processing, language comprehension, memory, and object recognition.

Depolarization during an action potential?

Positive ions enter the neuron, making the membrane charge less negative and then briefly positive.

Dopamine's major psychological functions?

Movement, motivation, reward learning, attention, and reinforcement.

A substance that increases a neurotransmitter's effect by activating its receptor or supporting its action.

A brief electrical impulse that travels along a neuron after threshold is reached.

The sending neuron reabsorbs neurotransmitter from the synapse after release.

Serotonin's major psychological functions?

Mood, sleep, appetite, and arousal regulation.

Glutamate's major psychological functions?

It is the brain's main excitatory neurotransmitter and supports learning and memory.

A short recovery interval after firing when the neuron resets and can't immediately produce another full action potential.

It helps regulate circadian timing and promotes sleepiness in darkness.

A substance that blocks or reduces a neurotransmitter's effect at its receptor.

Psychoactive drugs that increase central nervous system activity and alertness.

A reduced response after repeated use, so a larger dose may be needed for the same effect.

All-or-none principle?

A neuron fires a full action potential once threshold is reached; stronger input changes firing rate, not impulse size.

Norepinephrine's major psychological functions?

Alertness, arousal, attention, and the stress response.

GABA's major psychological function?

It is the brain's main inhibitory neurotransmitter and reduces neural activity.

Oxytocin's behavioral role?

It supports social bonding and also contributes to childbirth and lactation.

A drug that keeps more neurotransmitter in the synapse by slowing reabsorption.

Flashcards Open Source App — Five-Unit Psychology Course Review

Review five units of psychology through concept recall, real-world applications, research methods, data analysis, and evidence-based reasoning.

लेखक Flashcards Open Source App

इस डेक के बारे में

Review a five-unit psychology course with 705 independently written cards, ready to install and study offline. The deck covers biological bases of behavior, cognition, development and learning, social psychology and personality, and mental and physical health. It supports four science practices through concept application, research methods and design, data interpretation, and argumentation.

What this deck practices

Concept → meaning or function: recall a concise definition, mechanism, or distinction.
Scenario → concept: identify the idea that best explains a behavior, symptom pattern, or result.
Study description → method: identify a design, variable, sampling decision, ethical safeguard, limitation, or warranted conclusion.
Data representation → interpretation: read a compact table, distribution, graph pattern, statistic, or calculation and decide what the evidence shows.
Claim + evidence → reasoning: connect evidence to a defensible psychological explanation.

The sequence follows Units 1–5, stays within the current or next topic, and puts prerequisites and chronological steps first. Manually identified definition/application, foundation/claim, scenario, cue, and near-duplicate variants are assigned semantic families. At least three cards unrelated to either variant separate consecutive members of each family. Explicit prerequisite and chronological sequences stay together only when adjacency makes the progression easier to learn.

What's deliberately left out

The deck doesn't mechanically reverse every definition, diagnose personal anecdotes, offer treatment advice, or include long essay prompts. It stays within the reviewed five-unit course boundary and leaves out detailed genetics, neuron labeling, out-of-scope theories, unlisted disorders, names-and-dates trivia, and exhaustive study permutations.

Content and scope were reviewed on 2026-08-25.

The psychological facts and course outline aren't claimed as original. The CC0 label applies only to the independently written prompts, answers, organization, metadata, and ordering, to the extent those rights exist. No examination questions, scoring materials, curriculum text, source prose, logos, or third-party media were copied.

This independent, unofficial study deck is not affiliated with or endorsed by College Board.

इस डेक के कार्ड

कार्ड 1
प्रश्न
Nature in the nature–nurture question?
उत्तर
Inherited biological influences on behavior and mental processes.
कार्ड 2
प्रश्न
Central nervous system?
उत्तर
The brain and spinal cord, which process information and coordinate responses.
कार्ड 3
प्रश्न
Main role of the spinal cord?
उत्तर
It carries messages between brain and body and organizes some reflexes.
कार्ड 4
प्रश्न
Scores are 4, 6, 8, 10. What is the mean?
उत्तर
7, found by dividing the total of 28 by 4 scores.
कार्ड 5
प्रश्न
Nurture in the nature–nurture question?
उत्तर
Environmental influences, such as family, culture, education, and experience.
कार्ड 6
प्रश्न
Peripheral nervous system?
उत्तर
The nerves that connect the central nervous system with the rest of the body.
कार्ड 7
प्रश्न
Reflex arc?
उत्तर
A rapid neural pathway that can produce a response through the spinal cord before conscious brain processing.
कार्ड 8
प्रश्न
Reflex times are 180, 190, 210, 260, 410 milliseconds. What is the median?
उत्तर
210 milliseconds, the middle score after ordering the five values.
कार्ड 9
प्रश्न
Heritability?
उत्तर
The proportion of variation in a trait within a population that is associated with genetic differences. It doesn't describe one person's trait.
कार्ड 10
प्रश्न
Autonomic nervous system?
उत्तर
The peripheral division that regulates involuntary functions of glands and internal organs.
कार्ड 11
प्रश्न
Evolutionary perspective on behavior?
उत्तर
It asks how natural selection may have favored psychological traits that helped survival or reproduction.
कार्ड 12
प्रश्न
Why is eugenics scientifically and ethically invalid?
उत्तर
It misuses heredity claims to rank people and justify coercion, while ignoring environmental influence, human rights, and the complexity of traits.
कार्ड 13
प्रश्न
Why isn't behavior explained by genes or environment alone?
उत्तर
They interact. A biological tendency can be strengthened, weakened, or redirected by experience.
कार्ड 14
प्रश्न
Researchers compare a trait across biological relatives who share different amounts of DNA. Which method is this?
उत्तर
A family study; twin comparisons are one example, but shared environments still limit causal conclusions.
कार्ड 15
प्रश्न
Natural selection?
उत्तर
Traits that support survival or reproduction can become more common across generations.
कार्ड 16
प्रश्न
Somatic nervous system?
उत्तर
The peripheral division that carries sensory information and controls voluntary skeletal-muscle movement.
कार्ड 17
प्रश्न
Sensory neurons?
उत्तर
They carry incoming information from sensory receptors toward the central nervous system.
कार्ड 18
प्रश्न
Which design compares adoptees with both biological and adoptive relatives?
उत्तर
An adoption study, used to separate some hereditary and environmental similarities.
कार्ड 19
प्रश्न
Twins show a strong trait correlation. What keeps this result from proving genetic causation?
उत्तर
Correlation doesn't isolate genes from shared environments or other confounding variables.
कार्ड 20
प्रश्न
Sympathetic nervous system?
उत्तर
The autonomic division that mobilizes energy during challenge or threat.
कार्ड 21
प्रश्न
Evidence shows a genetic risk predicts an outcome only under chronic stress. Best claim?
उत्तर
The outcome reflects a gene–environment interaction, not a purely genetic effect.
कार्ड 22
प्रश्न
Motor neurons?
उत्तर
They carry outgoing commands from the central nervous system to muscles or glands.
कार्ड 23
प्रश्न
Sleep duration and stress are correlated. What directionality problem limits a causal conclusion?
उत्तर
The result cannot show whether less sleep raises stress, stress reduces sleep, or both directions operate.
कार्ड 24
प्रश्न
Parasympathetic nervous system?
उत्तर
The autonomic division that calms the body and supports rest, digestion, and recovery.
कार्ड 25
प्रश्न
Resting potential?
उत्तर
The neuron's stable negative charge when it isn't firing, maintained by unequal ion concentrations across the membrane.
कार्ड 26
प्रश्न
Interneurons?
उत्तर
Neurons within the central nervous system that process information and connect other neurons.
कार्ड 27
प्रश्न
Adrenaline's behavioral role?
उत्तर
It helps mobilize the body during arousal and the fight-or-flight response.
कार्ड 28
प्रश्न
Frontal lobes?
उत्तर
Planning, judgment, impulse control, working memory, voluntary movement, and aspects of speech.
कार्ड 29
प्रश्न
Neural threshold?
उत्तर
The minimum stimulation needed to trigger an action potential.
कार्ड 30
प्रश्न
Corpus callosum?
उत्तर
The large fiber tract that carries information between the cerebral hemispheres.
कार्ड 31
प्रश्न
Leptin's role in eating?
उत्तर
It signals stored energy and helps reduce hunger.
कार्ड 32
प्रश्न
Temporal lobes?
उत्तर
Auditory processing, language comprehension, memory, and object recognition.
कार्ड 33
प्रश्न
Depolarization during an action potential?
उत्तर
Positive ions enter the neuron, making the membrane charge less negative and then briefly positive.
कार्ड 34
प्रश्न
Dopamine's major psychological functions?
उत्तर
Movement, motivation, reward learning, attention, and reinforcement.
कार्ड 35
प्रश्न
Ghrelin's role in eating?
उत्तर
It helps stimulate hunger.
कार्ड 36
प्रश्न
Drug agonist?
उत्तर
A substance that increases a neurotransmitter's effect by activating its receptor or supporting its action.
कार्ड 37
प्रश्न
Action potential?
उत्तर
A brief electrical impulse that travels along a neuron after threshold is reached.
कार्ड 38
प्रश्न
Reuptake?
उत्तर
The sending neuron reabsorbs neurotransmitter from the synapse after release.
कार्ड 39
प्रश्न
Serotonin's major psychological functions?
उत्तर
Mood, sleep, appetite, and arousal regulation.
कार्ड 40
प्रश्न
Glutamate's major psychological functions?
उत्तर
It is the brain's main excitatory neurotransmitter and supports learning and memory.
कार्ड 41
प्रश्न
Refractory period?
उत्तर
A short recovery interval after firing when the neuron resets and can't immediately produce another full action potential.
कार्ड 42
प्रश्न
Melatonin's role?
उत्तर
It helps regulate circadian timing and promotes sleepiness in darkness.
कार्ड 43
प्रश्न
Drug antagonist?
उत्तर
A substance that blocks or reduces a neurotransmitter's effect at its receptor.
कार्ड 44
प्रश्न
Stimulants?
उत्तर
Psychoactive drugs that increase central nervous system activity and alertness.
कार्ड 45
प्रश्न
Drug tolerance?
उत्तर
A reduced response after repeated use, so a larger dose may be needed for the same effect.
कार्ड 46
प्रश्न
Damage to myelin slows messages in the central nervous system. Which disorder illustrates this problem?
उत्तर
Multiple sclerosis.
कार्ड 47
प्रश्न
All-or-none principle?
उत्तर
A neuron fires a full action potential once threshold is reached; stronger input changes firing rate, not impulse size.
कार्ड 48
प्रश्न
Norepinephrine's major psychological functions?
उत्तर
Alertness, arousal, attention, and the stress response.
कार्ड 49
प्रश्न
GABA's major psychological function?
उत्तर
It is the brain's main inhibitory neurotransmitter and reduces neural activity.
कार्ड 50
प्रश्न
Oxytocin's behavioral role?
उत्तर
It supports social bonding and also contributes to childbirth and lactation.
कार्ड 51
प्रश्न
Reuptake inhibitor?
उत्तर
A drug that keeps more neurotransmitter in the synapse by slowing reabsorption.
कार्ड 52
प्रश्न
Depressants?
उत्तर
Psychoactive drugs that reduce central nervous system activity.
कार्ड 53
प्रश्न
Drug withdrawal?
उत्तर
Physical or psychological symptoms that can appear when regular drug use is reduced or stopped.
कार्ड 54
प्रश्न
Antibodies disrupt acetylcholine receptors at muscles, causing weakness. Which disorder illustrates this problem?
उत्तर
Myasthenia gravis.
कार्ड 55
प्रश्न
Glial cells?
उत्तर
Cells that support, nourish, insulate, protect, and help regulate neurons and their connections.
कार्ड 56
प्रश्न
Endorphins?
उत्तर
Natural neurotransmitters that reduce pain and can produce pleasure.
कार्ड 57
प्रश्न
Substance P?
उत्तर
A neurotransmitter involved in pain signaling.
कार्ड 58
प्रश्न
Acetylcholine's major functions?
उत्तर
Muscle action, learning, memory, and attention.
कार्ड 59
प्रश्न
Opioids?
उत्तर
Drugs that bind to opioid receptors, reducing pain and often producing relaxation or euphoria.
कार्ड 60
प्रश्न
Hallucinogens?
उत्तर
Drugs that alter perception and can produce sensory experiences without matching external input.
कार्ड 61
प्रश्न
Addiction?
उत्तर
Compulsive substance use or behavior that continues despite harmful consequences and is difficult to control.
कार्ड 62
प्रश्न
Parietal lobes?
उत्तर
Body-sense processing, spatial attention, and integrating sensory information.
कार्ड 63
प्रश्न
Consciousness?
उत्तर
Awareness of internal experiences and the surrounding environment.
कार्ड 64
प्रश्न
Circadian rhythm?
उत्तर
A roughly 24-hour biological cycle that helps regulate sleep and wakefulness.
कार्ड 65
प्रश्न
Damage causes slow, effortful speech with relatively preserved comprehension. Likely region?
उत्तर
Broca's area, usually in the left frontal lobe.
कार्ड 66
प्रश्न
Occipital lobes?
उत्तर
Primary cortical processing of visual information.
कार्ड 67
प्रश्न
What does split-brain research reveal?
उत्तर
When the corpus callosum is severed, the hemispheres can process some information independently.
कार्ड 68
प्रश्न
How does the suprachiasmatic nucleus regulate circadian rhythm?
उत्तर
It uses light information from the eyes to coordinate the body's roughly 24-hour clock.
कार्ड 69
प्रश्न
NREM-1 sleep?
उत्तर
The light transition into sleep, sometimes accompanied by hypnagogic sensations.
कार्ड 70
प्रश्न
Motor cortex?
उत्तर
A frontal-lobe strip that directs voluntary movement.
कार्ड 71
प्रश्न
Damage causes fluent but nonsensical speech and poor comprehension. Likely region?
उत्तर
Wernicke's area, usually in the left temporal lobe.
कार्ड 72
प्रश्न
Brainstem's core function?
उत्तर
It supports basic survival functions and connects the brain with the spinal cord.
कार्ड 73
प्रश्न
NREM-2 sleep?
उत्तर
A light sleep stage marked by sleep spindles and K-complexes.
कार्ड 74
प्रश्न
Somatosensory cortex?
उत्तर
A parietal-lobe strip that registers touch and body-position information.
कार्ड 75
प्रश्न
Medulla's main functions?
उत्तर
It regulates vital automatic functions such as breathing and heart rate.
कार्ड 76
प्रश्न
Reticular activating system?
उत्तर
A brainstem network involved in alertness, arousal, and the sleep–wake cycle.
कार्ड 77
प्रश्न
NREM-3 sleep?
उत्तर
Deep slow-wave sleep, associated with physical restoration and difficult awakening.
कार्ड 78
प्रश्न
Cerebellum's main functions?
उत्तर
Balance, coordinated movement, procedural learning, and timing.
कार्ड 79
प्रश्न
Thalamus?
उत्तर
A relay that directs most sensory information to the cerebral cortex and helps regulate alertness.
कार्ड 80
प्रश्न
Hypothalamus?
उत्तर
It helps regulate homeostasis, hunger, thirst, temperature, sexual behavior, and endocrine activity.
कार्ड 81
प्रश्न
REM sleep?
उत्तर
A stage with vivid dreaming, rapid eye movements, active brain patterns, and skeletal-muscle paralysis.
कार्ड 82
प्रश्न
Why is the pituitary called a master gland?
उत्तर
Its hormones influence other endocrine glands, under the hypothalamus's control.
कार्ड 83
प्रश्न
Amygdala?
उत्तर
A limbic structure involved in processing emotion, threat, and emotional learning.
कार्ड 84
प्रश्न
Hippocampus?
उत्तर
A limbic structure essential for forming new explicit memories and spatial memory.
कार्ड 85
प्रश्न
How does sleep change across a typical night?
उत्तर
NREM and REM repeat in cycles; REM periods generally lengthen toward morning.
कार्ड 86
प्रश्न
Contralateral brain control?
उत्तर
Each cerebral hemisphere mainly receives sensory input from and controls movement on the opposite side of the body.
कार्ड 87
प्रश्न
What does an EEG measure?
उत्तर
Electrical activity recorded from the scalp, with strong timing information but limited spatial precision.
कार्ड 88
प्रश्न
Reward-center activity?
उत्तर
Activity in neural reward pathways can reinforce behaviors that predict desirable outcomes.
कार्ड 89
प्रश्न
Neuroplasticity?
उत्तर
The nervous system's ability to change its organization or function through experience, learning, or injury.
कार्ड 90
प्रश्न
Which method shows brain activity changing during a task?
उत्तर
A functional brain-imaging method, such as fMRI or PET, rather than a structural scan alone.
कार्ड 91
प्रश्न
A patient loses a function after damage to one brain region. What is the cautious conclusion?
उत्तर
The region contributes to the function, but the behavior may depend on a wider network.
कार्ड 92
प्रश्न
Insomnia?
उत्तर
Persistent difficulty falling asleep, staying asleep, or obtaining restorative sleep.
कार्ड 93
प्रश्न
How do wavelength and amplitude shape sound?
उत्तर
Wavelength relates to frequency and perceived pitch; amplitude relates to intensity and perceived loudness.
कार्ड 94
प्रश्न
Absolute threshold?
उत्तर
The minimum stimulation detected 50% of the time.
कार्ड 95
प्रश्न
Activation-synthesis view of dreams?
उत्तर
The brain builds a story while interpreting internally generated neural activity during sleep.
कार्ड 96
प्रश्न
Narcolepsy?
उत्तर
A disorder involving sudden sleep attacks and abnormal entry into REM sleep.
कार्ड 97
प्रश्न
Why can jet lag disrupt sleep?
उत्तर
The internal circadian clock is temporarily out of sync with the new light–dark schedule.
कार्ड 98
प्रश्न
Difference threshold?
उत्तर
The smallest change between stimuli detected 50% of the time.
कार्ड 99
प्रश्न
Consolidation view of dreams?
उत्तर
Dreaming may reflect the brain organizing and integrating recent memories.
कार्ड 100
प्रश्न
REM sleep behavior disorder?
उत्तर
Loss of normal REM muscle paralysis, allowing a person to act out dreams.
कार्ड 101
प्रश्न
Why can rotating shift work impair sleep?
उत्तर
Frequent schedule changes force the circadian system to keep readjusting.
कार्ड 102
प्रश्न
Weber's law?
उत्तर
The noticeable difference between two stimuli is a constant proportion of the original intensity.
कार्ड 103
प्रश्न
Two supported functions of sleep?
उत्तर
Memory consolidation and restoration of resources used during waking activity.
कार्ड 104
प्रश्न
Sleep apnea?
उत्तर
Repeated breathing interruptions during sleep that fragment sleep and reduce oxygen.
कार्ड 105
प्रश्न
REM rebound?
उत्तर
A temporary increase in REM sleep after a period of REM deprivation.
कार्ड 106
प्रश्न
Signal detection theory?
उत्तर
Detection depends on stimulus strength plus expectations, experience, motivation, and alertness.
कार्ड 107
प्रश्न
Sensory transduction?
उत्तर
Sensory receptors convert physical energy into neural signals.
कार्ड 108
प्रश्न
Vestibular sense?
उत्तर
The sense of balance and head movement, supported by structures in the inner ear.
कार्ड 109
प्रश्न
Somnambulism?
उत्तर
Sleepwalking, which most often occurs during deep NREM sleep.
कार्ड 110
प्रश्न
Why is there a blind spot in each eye?
उत्तर
The optic nerve leaves the retina at a point with no rods or cones.
कार्ड 111
प्रश्न
What begins visual transduction?
उत्तर
Retinal receptors convert light into neural signals that travel toward the brain.
कार्ड 112
प्रश्न
A sound reaches the left ear slightly earlier and louder than the right. Where will it seem to originate?
उत्तर
From the left, because the brain compares arrival-time and intensity differences between the ears.
कार्ड 113
प्रश्न
Why are taste and smell called chemical senses?
उत्तर
Their receptors respond to molecules from food or the air.
कार्ड 114
प्रश्न
Accommodation in vision?
उत्तर
The lens changes shape to focus near or distant objects on the retina.
कार्ड 115
प्रश्न
Cones?
उत्तर
Retinal receptors that support color vision and fine detail in brighter light.
कार्ड 116
प्रश्न
What begins auditory transduction?
उत्तर
Hair cells in the inner ear convert sound-driven vibration into neural signals.
कार्ड 117
प्रश्न
How does trichromatic processing explain color vision?
उत्तर
Three cone types respond most strongly to different wavelength ranges, and their combined activity produces color experience.
कार्ड 118
प्रश्न
How is smell unusual among the senses?
उत्तर
Olfactory signals reach cortical and limbic areas without first passing through the thalamic relay used by other senses.
कार्ड 119
प्रश्न
Kinesthesia?
उत्तर
The sense of body-part position and movement, based on signals from muscles, tendons, and joints.
कार्ड 120
प्रश्न
Place coding versus frequency coding in hearing?
उत्तर
Place coding links pitch to where the cochlea responds most; frequency coding links pitch to neural firing rate.
कार्ड 121
प्रश्न
Nearsightedness?
उत्तर
Nearby objects are clear, but distant images focus in front of the retina and look blurred.
कार्ड 122
प्रश्न
Pheromones?
उत्तर
Chemical signals released by one organism that can affect the behavior or physiology of others of the same species.
कार्ड 123
प्रश्न
Touch receptors for warmth and cold fire together strongly. What sensation can result?
उत्तर
A hot or burning sensation, showing that temperature experience combines receptor signals.
कार्ड 124
प्रश्न
Volley theory of pitch?
उत्तर
Groups of auditory neurons alternate firing so their combined rate can represent pitches too fast for one neuron alone.
कार्ड 125
प्रश्न
Farsightedness?
उत्तर
Distant vision is clearer, while nearby images tend to focus behind the retina and look blurred.
कार्ड 126
प्रश्न
Six taste qualities named in the course?
उत्तर
Sweet, sour, salty, bitter, umami, and oleogustus (fat taste).
कार्ड 127
प्रश्न
Phantom-limb sensation?
उत्तर
Feeling pain, touch, or movement in a limb that is no longer present because the nervous system still represents it.
कार्ड 128
प्रश्न
Sensory interaction?
उत्तर
One sense changes how another is experienced, as smell influences flavor.
कार्ड 129
प्रश्न
What causes most color-vision deficiency?
उत्तर
One or more cone types are missing or function differently, reducing discrimination among some colors.
कार्ड 130
प्रश्न
Prosopagnosia?
उत्तर
Difficulty recognizing familiar faces despite otherwise usable vision.
कार्ड 131
प्रश्न
Rods?
उत्तर
Retinal receptors sensitive to dim light and peripheral movement, without color detail.
कार्ड 132
प्रश्न
How does opponent processing explain afterimages?
उत्तर
Color is coded in opposing pairs, so tiring one response can make its opponent briefly dominate.
कार्ड 133
प्रश्न
Conductive versus sensorineural hearing loss?
उत्तर
Conductive loss blocks sound transmission; sensorineural loss damages hair cells or auditory pathways.
कार्ड 134
प्रश्न
Nontasters, medium tasters, and supertasters?
उत्तर
Categories describing lower, typical, and unusually high sensitivity to taste, especially bitterness.
कार्ड 135
प्रश्न
What do the semicircular canals detect?
उत्तर
Rotational head movement, helping the vestibular system maintain balance.
कार्ड 136
प्रश्न
Synesthesia?
उत्तर
Stimulation of one sense consistently and automatically produces an additional sensory experience.
कार्ड 137
प्रश्न
Dichromatism versus monochromatism?
उत्तर
Dichromatism uses two functioning cone systems; monochromatism uses one or none, producing far less color discrimination.
कार्ड 138
प्रश्न
Blindsight?
उत्तर
Responding to visual information without consciously seeing it, usually after damage to primary visual cortex.
कार्ड 139
प्रश्न
Sensory adaptation?
उत्तर
Reduced sensitivity after constant, unchanging stimulation.
कार्ड 140
प्रश्न
Gate-control view of pain?
उत्तर
Spinal and brain processes can amplify or reduce pain signals before conscious experience.
कार्ड 141
प्रश्न
Bottom-up processing?
उत्तर
Building a perception from incoming sensory details.
कार्ड 142
प्रश्न
Concept?
उत्तर
A mental category used to group similar objects, events, ideas, or people.
कार्ड 143
प्रश्न
Fixation in problem solving?
उत्तर
Getting stuck on one way of representing or solving a problem.
कार्ड 144
प्रश्न
Algorithm?
उत्तर
A step-by-step method that guarantees a solution when followed correctly, though it may be slow.
कार्ड 145
प्रश्न
Top-down processing?
उत्तर
Using expectations, context, and prior knowledge to interpret sensory input.
कार्ड 146
प्रश्न
Confirmation bias?
उत्तर
Seeking or interpreting evidence in ways that support an existing belief.
कार्ड 147
प्रश्न
Retinal disparity?
उत्तर
The difference between each eye's image; greater disparity usually signals a nearer object.
कार्ड 148
प्रश्न
Heuristic?
उत्तर
A quick rule of thumb that saves effort but can produce errors.
कार्ड 149
प्रश्न
Selective attention?
उत्तर
Focusing conscious awareness on one part of the available sensory input.
कार्ड 150
प्रश्न
Figure–ground organization?
उत्तर
Separating the object of attention from its background.
कार्ड 151
प्रश्न
Convergence as a depth cue?
उत्तर
The inward turning of the eyes increases as an object gets closer.
कार्ड 152
प्रश्न
Representativeness heuristic?
उत्तर
Judging category membership by resemblance to a prototype while neglecting other information.
कार्ड 153
प्रश्न
Missing a visible event while attention is elsewhere?
उत्तर
Inattentional blindness.
कार्ड 154
प्रश्न
Gestalt proximity principle?
उत्तर
Elements close together tend to be perceived as a group.
कार्ड 155
प्रश्न
Two familiar objects cast different-sized retinal images. Which looks farther away?
उत्तर
The one with the smaller retinal image, using the monocular cue of relative size.
कार्ड 156
प्रश्न
Cocktail-party effect?
उत्तर
The ability to focus on one conversation while still noticing personally important information in the background.
कार्ड 157
प्रश्न
Failing to notice an obvious change in a scene?
उत्तर
Change blindness.
कार्ड 158
प्रश्न
Gestalt similarity principle?
उत्तर
Elements that look alike tend to be grouped together.
कार्ड 159
प्रश्न
Parallel lines seem to meet in the distance. Which depth cue?
उत्तर
Linear perspective.
कार्ड 160
प्रश्न
Perceptual constancy?
उत्तर
Seeing an object's size, shape, or color as stable despite changing sensory images.
कार्ड 161
प्रश्न
Perceptual set?
उत्तर
A readiness to perceive something in a particular way because of expectations or context.
कार्ड 162
प्रश्न
Gestalt closure principle?
उत्तर
The mind fills gaps to perceive a complete object.
कार्ड 163
प्रश्न
One object blocks part of another. Which seems closer?
उत्तर
The blocking object, using interposition.
कार्ड 164
प्रश्न
Apparent motion?
उत्तर
The perception of movement created by rapidly presented stationary images or lights.
कार्ड 165
प्रश्न
Availability heuristic?
उत्तर
Judging likelihood by how easily examples come to mind.
कार्ड 166
प्रश्न
Divergent thinking?
उत्तर
Generating many varied, original possibilities.
कार्ड 167
प्रश्न
A hazy object appears farther away than a sharp object. Which depth cue?
उत्तर
Relative clarity.
कार्ड 168
प्रश्न
Prototype?
उत्तर
A mental image of the most typical example of a category.
कार्ड 169
प्रश्न
Ignoring how common an event is while focusing on a vivid description?
उत्तर
Base-rate neglect, often tied to the representativeness heuristic.
कार्ड 170
प्रश्न
Convergent thinking?
उत्तर
Narrowing possibilities to the single best answer.
कार्ड 171
प्रश्न
A textured surface looks denser and finer with distance. Which depth cue?
उत्तर
Texture gradient.
कार्ड 172
प्रश्न
Belief perseverance?
उत्तर
Holding a belief even after the evidence that created it has been discredited.
कार्ड 173
प्रश्न
Explicit memory?
उत्तर
Conscious memory for facts and experiences.
कार्ड 174
प्रश्न
Three stores in the multi-store model?
उत्तर
Sensory memory, short-term memory, and long-term memory.
कार्ड 175
प्रश्न
Seeing an object only in its usual role?
उत्तर
Functional fixedness.
कार्ड 176
प्रश्न
Mental set?
उत्तर
Using a familiar solution strategy even when a different approach would work better.
कार्ड 177
प्रश्न
Episodic memory?
उत्तर
Explicit memory for personally experienced events.
कार्ड 178
प्रश्न
Working memory?
उत्तर
A limited-capacity system that briefly holds and actively manipulates information.
कार्ड 179
प्रश्न
Insight?
उत्तर
A sudden realization of a problem's solution.
कार्ड 180
प्रश्न
Framing effect?
उत्तर
Choices change when the same information is worded or presented differently.
कार्ड 181
प्रश्न
Implicit memory?
उत्तर
Learning that affects behavior without deliberate conscious recall.
कार्ड 182
प्रश्न
Overconfidence bias?
उत्तर
Being more certain about one's judgments than accuracy warrants.
कार्ड 183
प्रश्न
Anchoring bias?
उत्तर
Relying too heavily on the first number or idea encountered.
कार्ड 184
प्रश्न
Schema in thinking?
उत्तर
A mental framework that organizes knowledge and guides interpretation.
कार्ड 185
प्रश्न
Procedural memory?
उत्तर
Implicit memory for skills and habits.
कार्ड 186
प्रश्न
Gambler's fallacy?
उत्तर
The mistaken belief that a random outcome becomes due after a streak, even when trials are independent.
कार्ड 187
प्रश्न
Sunk-cost fallacy?
उत्तर
Continuing because of past investment even when future costs outweigh future benefits.
कार्ड 188
प्रश्न
Executive functions?
उत्तर
Mental processes that support planning, inhibition, flexible switching, and goal-directed control.
कार्ड 189
प्रश्न
How can priming affect judgment?
उत्तर
Recent exposure can make related ideas more accessible and subtly shape a later response.
कार्ड 190
प्रश्न
Central executive in working memory?
उत्तर
The attention-control component that coordinates verbal and visual-spatial processing.
कार्ड 191
प्रश्न
Serial-position effect?
उत्तर
People tend to recall the first and last items in a list better than the middle.
कार्ड 192
प्रश्न
Semantic memory?
उत्तर
Explicit memory for facts, meanings, and general knowledge.
कार्ड 193
प्रश्न
Levels-of-processing principle?
उत्तर
Deeper semantic processing usually produces stronger memory than shallow structural or sound-based processing.
कार्ड 194
प्रश्न
Automatic processing?
उत्तर
Encoding information with little conscious effort, such as space, time, or well-practiced meanings.
कार्ड 195
प्रश्न
Maintenance rehearsal?
उत्तर
Repeating information to keep it active, usually without adding much meaning.
कार्ड 196
प्रश्न
Prospective memory?
उत्तर
Remembering to carry out an intended action in the future.
कार्ड 197
प्रश्न
Primacy effect?
उत्तर
Better memory for early list items, often because they receive more rehearsal.
कार्ड 198
प्रश्न
Long-term memory?
उत्तर
A relatively durable, large-capacity store of knowledge, experiences, and skills.
कार्ड 199
प्रश्न
Highly superior autobiographical memory?
उत्तर
An unusual ability to recall extensive personal events and dates with exceptional accuracy.
कार्ड 200
प्रश्न
Effortful processing?
उत्तर
Encoding that requires attention and deliberate work.
कार्ड 201
प्रश्न
Elaborative rehearsal?
उत्तर
Linking new information to meaning, examples, or existing knowledge.
कार्ड 202
प्रश्न
Memory consolidation?
उत्तर
The process that stabilizes a memory after learning.
कार्ड 203
प्रश्न
Recency effect?
उत्तर
Better immediate memory for the last list items because they remain active.
कार्ड 204
प्रश्न
Spacing effect?
उत्तर
Learning lasts longer when study is distributed over time rather than massed into one session.
कार्ड 205
प्रश्न
Testing effect?
उत्तर
Actively retrieving information improves later memory more than rereading alone.
कार्ड 206
प्रश्न
Chunking?
उत्तर
Organizing separate pieces of information into meaningful units.
कार्ड 207
प्रश्न
Mnemonic?
उत्तर
A structured memory aid that links material to an image, phrase, location, or pattern.
कार्ड 208
प्रश्न
Why organize material into a hierarchy?
उत्तर
Grouping broad ideas above narrower details makes relationships easier to encode and retrieve.
कार्ड 209
प्रश्न
How can a schema help encoding?
उत्तर
It supplies an existing framework that organizes and connects new information.
कार्ड 210
प्रश्न
Students reread or practice retrieval, then take the same delayed test. What are the independent and dependent variables?
उत्तर
The study method is independent; delayed-test performance is dependent.
कार्ड 211
प्रश्न
Iconic memory?
उत्तर
A very brief visual sensory memory.
कार्ड 212
प्रश्न
Recall?
उत्तर
Retrieving information with few external cues, as in an essay question.
कार्ड 213
प्रश्न
Retrieval cue?
उत्तर
A stimulus linked to a memory that helps bring it to awareness.
कार्ड 214
प्रश्न
Encoding-specificity principle?
उत्तर
Retrieval improves when cues at recall match cues present during encoding.
कार्ड 215
प्रश्न
Context-dependent memory?
उत्तर
Recall can improve in the same external environment where learning occurred.
कार्ड 216
प्रश्न
Does the hippocampus permanently store every explicit memory?
उत्तर
No. It helps form and consolidate new explicit memories, which later depend on distributed cortical networks.
कार्ड 217
प्रश्न
Echoic memory?
उत्तर
A brief auditory sensory memory that lasts longer than iconic memory.
कार्ड 218
प्रश्न
Anterograde amnesia?
उत्तर
Difficulty forming new long-term explicit memories after the onset of damage or illness.
कार्ड 219
प्रश्न
Phonological loop?
उत्तर
The working-memory component that briefly holds and rehearses verbal or sound information.
कार्ड 220
प्रश्न
Cerebellum's memory role?
उत्तर
It supports procedural learning and some classically conditioned responses.
कार्ड 221
प्रश्न
Why is short-term memory described as limited?
उत्तर
It can hold only a small amount of information without rehearsal or chunking.
कार्ड 222
प्रश्न
Retrograde amnesia?
उत्तर
Loss of memories formed before the onset of damage or illness.
कार्ड 223
प्रश्न
Why are events tied to your own life often easier to remember?
उत्तर
The self-reference effect makes information connected to oneself more memorable.
कार्ड 224
प्रश्न
How can the amygdala affect memory?
उत्तर
Emotional arousal can strengthen consolidation of emotionally significant events.
कार्ड 225
प्रश्न
Visuospatial sketchpad?
उत्तर
The working-memory component that holds and manipulates visual and spatial information.
कार्ड 226
प्रश्न
Long-term potentiation?
उत्तर
A lasting increase in synaptic efficiency after repeated activation, associated with learning and memory.
कार्ड 227
प्रश्न
Infantile amnesia?
उत्तर
The typical inability to recall autobiographical events from the first few years of life.
कार्ड 228
प्रश्न
Alzheimer's disease?
उत्तर
A progressive brain disorder that gradually impairs memory, reasoning, and daily functioning.
कार्ड 229
प्रश्न
Scores are 2, 4, 4, 7, 9. What are the mode and range?
उत्तर
The mode is 4, and the range is 7 because 9 - 2 = 7.
कार्ड 230
प्रश्न
Recognition?
उत्तर
Identifying previously learned information, as in selecting a familiar answer.
कार्ड 231
प्रश्न
Why is memory called reconstructive?
उत्तर
Recall rebuilds an event from stored details, schemas, expectations, and later information.
कार्ड 232
प्रश्न
Storage decay?
उत्तर
A memory trace weakens over time, especially when it isn't used.
कार्ड 233
प्रश्न
State-dependent memory?
उत्तर
Recall can improve when a person's internal state matches the state during learning.
कार्ड 234
प्रश्न
Relearning?
उत्तर
Measuring memory by how much faster material is learned again.
कार्ड 235
प्रश्न
Misinformation effect?
उत्तर
Misleading information after an event changes memory of the event.
कार्ड 236
प्रश्न
A student recalls more in the original classroom. What claim is supported?
उत्तर
Matching environmental cues can aid retrieval; the setting didn't necessarily improve storage.
कार्ड 237
प्रश्न
Mood-congruent memory?
उत्तर
A current mood makes similarly toned memories easier to retrieve.
कार्ड 238
प्रश्न
Priming?
उत्तर
Exposure to one stimulus unconsciously influences the response to a later stimulus.
कार्ड 239
प्रश्न
Tip-of-the-tongue state?
उत्तर
A temporary retrieval failure accompanied by a feeling that the answer is known.
कार्ड 240
प्रश्न
Why does retrieval practice strengthen memory?
उत्तर
Each successful retrieval reinforces access routes and reveals what still needs study.
कार्ड 241
प्रश्न
Class A scores cluster near 80; Class B has the same mean but scores spread from 50 to 100. Which class has the larger standard deviation?
उत्तर
Class B, because its scores vary farther from the mean.
कार्ड 242
प्रश्न
Metacognition?
उत्तर
Monitoring and regulating one's own thinking and learning.
कार्ड 243
प्रश्न
Source amnesia?
उत्तर
Remembering information but misremembering where it came from.
कार्ड 244
प्रश्न
Test standardization?
उत्तर
Administering a test consistently and establishing norms from a representative sample.
कार्ड 245
प्रश्न
Reliability?
उत्तर
The consistency of a measurement across time, items, or scorers.
कार्ड 246
प्रश्न
Stereotype threat?
उत्तर
Concern about confirming a negative group stereotype can interfere with performance.
कार्ड 247
प्रश्न
General intelligence, or g?
उत्तर
A broad mental ability proposed to contribute to performance across many cognitive tasks.
कार्ड 248
प्रश्न
Encoding failure?
उत्तर
Information never entered memory well enough to be stored, often because attention was weak.
कार्ड 249
प्रश्न
Validity?
उत्तर
The extent to which evidence supports the interpretation and use of a test score.
कार्ड 250
प्रश्न
Proactive interference?
उत्तर
Older learning disrupts recall of newer information.
कार्ड 251
प्रश्न
Imagination inflation?
उत्तर
Repeatedly imagining an event increases confidence that it really happened.
कार्ड 252
प्रश्न
A forgetting curve drops sharply soon after learning, then flattens. What does this pattern show?
उत्तर
Forgetting is fastest soon after learning and slows over time.
कार्ड 253
प्रश्न
Retrieval failure?
उत्तर
Stored information is temporarily inaccessible because effective cues are missing.
कार्ड 254
प्रश्न
Retroactive interference?
उत्तर
Newer learning disrupts recall of older information.
कार्ड 255
प्रश्न
A confident witness recalls a detail introduced after the event. Best conclusion?
उत्तर
Confidence doesn't guarantee accuracy; post-event misinformation may have altered the memory.
कार्ड 256
प्रश्न
Repression in psychodynamic theory?
उत्तर
The proposed unconscious blocking of distressing memories or impulses from awareness.
कार्ड 257
प्रश्न
Flashbulb memory?
उत्तर
A vivid memory for learning about an emotional event; confidence can remain high even when details change.
कार्ड 258
प्रश्न
A study defines memory accuracy as the number of 20 words recalled after 24 hours. What design element is this?
उत्तर
An operational definition of memory accuracy.
कार्ड 259
प्रश्न
A score is at the 84th percentile. What does that mean?
उत्तर
It is equal to or higher than about 84% of scores in the reference group.
कार्ड 260
प्रश्न
Stereotype lift?
उत्तर
A performance boost that can occur when a negative stereotype targets another group, making one's own group seem comparatively advantaged.
कार्ड 261
प्रश्न
Achievement test?
उत्तर
An assessment of knowledge or skills already learned.
कार्ड 262
प्रश्न
Construct validity?
उत्तर
How well evidence shows that a test measures the psychological construct it claims to measure.
कार्ड 263
प्रश्न
Test–retest reliability?
उत्तर
Consistency of scores when the same assessment is administered to the same people at different times.
कार्ड 264
प्रश्न
Why can't historical group differences on intelligence tests justify discriminatory policy?
उत्तर
Scores reflect testing conditions and social opportunity as well as measured ability; group averages don't define individuals or prove biological causation.
कार्ड 265
प्रश्न
Multiple-abilities view of intelligence?
उत्तर
Intelligence includes several partly distinct abilities rather than one general capacity alone.
कार्ड 266
प्रश्न
Aptitude test?
उत्तर
An assessment intended to predict capacity to learn or perform in the future.
कार्ड 267
प्रश्न
Traditional IQ formula?
उत्तर
Mental age divided by chronological age, multiplied by 100. Modern tests use age-based norms instead.
कार्ड 268
प्रश्न
Predictive validity?
उत्तर
How well a test score forecasts a relevant later outcome.
कार्ड 269
प्रश्न
What does a normal score distribution look like?
उत्तर
Most scores cluster near the mean, with fewer scores toward either extreme.
कार्ड 270
प्रश्न
Split-half reliability?
उत्तर
Consistency between two comparable halves of the same assessment.
कार्ड 271
प्रश्न
Two groups have different average test scores. What conclusion is not justified?
उत्तर
That every member differs or that biology caused the gap; within-group variation and social conditions matter.
कार्ड 272
प्रश्न
Flynn effect?
उत्तर
Average intelligence-test scores have risen across generations in many populations, pointing to environmental influence.
कार्ड 273
प्रश्न
A student treats mistakes as information and changes study strategies. Which mindset does this show?
उत्तर
A growth mindset; a fixed mindset treats ability as largely unchangeable.
कार्ड 274
प्रश्न
Continuous versus stage development?
उत्तर
Continuous views emphasize gradual change; stage views describe distinct qualitative shifts.
कार्ड 275
प्रश्न
How can prenatal environment affect later development?
उत्तर
Nutrition, stress, illness, and substance exposure can influence physical and neural development before birth.
कार्ड 276
प्रश्न
Teratogen?
उत्तर
An environmental agent that can disrupt prenatal development, with effects depending on dose, timing, and susceptibility.
कार्ड 277
प्रश्न
Maturation?
उत्तर
Biologically guided growth processes that unfold in a generally predictable sequence.
कार्ड 278
प्रश्न
Stability–change question in development?
उत्तर
It asks which traits persist across life and which change with age or experience.
कार्ड 279
प्रश्न
A researcher predicts that students who sleep at least eight hours will recall more words than students who sleep less. Why is this hypothesis falsifiable?
उत्तर
The groups and recall outcome can be measured, so evidence could show that the predicted difference does not occur.
कार्ड 280
प्रश्न
Which method best tests whether a new study routine causes higher quiz scores?
उत्तर
An experiment that manipulates the routine and randomly assigns participants, because it can support a causal conclusion.
कार्ड 281
प्रश्न
Why do motor milestones follow a common order but different timing?
उत्तर
Maturation shapes the sequence, while biology and experience influence pace.
कार्ड 282
प्रश्न
Fine versus gross motor skills?
उत्तर
Fine skills use small, precise movements; gross skills use larger muscle groups and whole-body movement.
कार्ड 283
प्रश्न
Why are infant reflexes useful to researchers?
उत्तर
Their presence and change can indicate early nervous-system development.
कार्ड 284
प्रश्न
What did the visual-cliff procedure test?
उत्तर
It tested whether infants would cross an apparent drop, providing evidence about depth perception and the influence of locomotor experience.
कार्ड 285
प्रश्न
Puberty?
उत्तर
The period of sexual maturation driven by hormonal and physical changes.
कार्ड 286
प्रश्न
Sensitive period?
उत्तर
A developmental window when experience has an especially strong effect, though learning may remain possible later.
कार्ड 287
प्रश्न
What physical pattern commonly marks the start of adolescence?
उत्तर
A puberty-related growth spurt, with rapid increases in height and weight.
कार्ड 288
प्रश्न
Primary versus secondary sex characteristics?
उत्तर
Primary characteristics are reproductive organs and functions; secondary characteristics are puberty-related traits not directly required for reproduction.
कार्ड 289
प्रश्न
Which method best measures the relationship between adolescents' sleep duration and mood without assigning sleep schedules?
उत्तर
A correlational study, because both variables are measured rather than manipulated.
कार्ड 290
प्रश्न
Older adults score lower than younger adults in one same-time comparison. Which design and alternative explanation limit an aging claim?
उत्तर
The study is cross-sectional, and a cohort effect could explain the difference because the age groups grew up under different conditions.
कार्ड 291
प्रश्न
Researchers test the same people yearly from ages 10 to 20. Which design is this, and what participant-loss risk should they track?
उत्तर
A longitudinal design; attrition can bias the results if those who leave differ from those who remain.
कार्ड 292
प्रश्न
Menarche?
उत्तर
The first menstrual period.
कार्ड 293
प्रश्न
Which method allows an intensive investigation of one person with an exceptionally rare developmental condition?
उत्तर
A case study, which provides depth but may not generalize to a wider population.
कार्ड 294
प्रश्न
About what percentage of scores in a normal distribution lie within one standard deviation of the mean?
उत्तर
About 68%.
कार्ड 295
प्रश्न
A prenatal exposure correlates with later difficulty. What limits a causal claim?
उत्तर
Other parental, health, and environmental variables may account for the association.
कार्ड 296
प्रश्न
Spermarche?
उत्तर
The first ejaculation.
कार्ड 297
प्रश्न
Which method combines results from many studies to estimate an overall effect?
उत्तर
A meta-analysis, which statistically synthesizes findings across studies.
कार्ड 298
प्रश्न
Imprinting?
उत्तर
A rapid form of early learning in which some young animals form an attachment during a sensitive period.
कार्ड 299
प्रश्न
Why can adolescent risk-taking increase?
उत्तर
Reward systems develop earlier than the prefrontal control systems used for planning and inhibition.
कार्ड 300
प्रश्न
Menopause?
उत्तर
The natural end of menstrual cycles, diagnosed after 12 consecutive months without menstruation.
कार्ड 301
प्रश्न
Which method records children's playground behavior without directing or changing it?
उत्तर
Naturalistic observation.
कार्ड 302
प्रश्न
How do mobility, flexibility, and reaction time typically change across later adulthood?
उत्तर
They tend to decline gradually, although health, activity, and individual differences affect the pace.
कार्ड 303
प्रश्न
Gender identity?
उत्तर
A person's internal sense of their gender.
कार्ड 304
प्रश्न
Gender role?
उत्तर
A culture's expectations for behavior associated with gender.
कार्ड 305
प्रश्न
Sex versus gender?
उत्तर
Sex refers to biological traits; gender refers to identities, roles, and social meanings.
कार्ड 306
प्रश्न
Common sensory change in later adulthood?
उत्तर
Vision and hearing sensitivity often decline, though the degree varies widely.
कार्ड 307
प्रश्न
Sexual orientation?
उत्तर
A pattern of romantic or sexual attraction; it is distinct from gender identity.
कार्ड 308
प्रश्न
Gender schema?
उत्तर
A mental framework that organizes information and expectations about gender.
कार्ड 309
प्रश्न
Best broad view of gender development?
उत्तर
Biological, cognitive, social, and cultural influences interact.
कार्ड 310
प्रश्न
Does normal aging cause uniform cognitive decline?
उत्तर
No. Processing speed may slow, while knowledge and expertise can remain stable or grow.
कार्ड 311
प्रश्न
Why shouldn't variation in gender identity or sexual orientation be treated as a disorder?
उत्तर
Variation alone isn't evidence of dysfunction; distress often reflects stigma or discrimination rather than identity.
कार्ड 312
प्रश्न
Schema in cognitive development?
उत्तर
A mental framework used to organize and interpret experience.
कार्ड 313
प्रश्न
Sensorimotor stage?
उत्तर
Infants learn through sensory experience and action and develop object permanence.
कार्ड 314
प्रश्न
Preoperational stage?
उत्तर
Young children use symbols and language but often lack conservation and show egocentric thinking.
कार्ड 315
प्रश्न
Assimilation?
उत्तर
Fitting new information into an existing schema.
कार्ड 316
प्रश्न
A learner cannot solve a puzzle alone but succeeds with a teacher's hints. Where is the task?
उत्तर
In the learner's zone of proximal development.
कार्ड 317
प्रश्न
Animism in preoperational thought?
उत्तर
Attributing life, feelings, or intentions to inanimate objects.
कार्ड 318
प्रश्न
Concrete operational stage?
उत्तर
Children reason logically about concrete events and understand conservation.
कार्ड 319
प्रश्न
Accommodation?
उत्तर
Changing a schema when new information doesn't fit it.
कार्ड 320
प्रश्न
Reversibility in cognitive development?
उत्तर
Understanding that an operation can be mentally undone, a skill associated with concrete operational thought.
कार्ड 321
प्रश्न
How can social learning shape gender expression?
उत्तर
People observe models and receive reinforcement or punishment for gender-related behavior.
कार्ड 322
प्रश्न
A child calls a zebra a horse because it fits an existing animal schema. Which process?
उत्तर
Assimilation.
कार्ड 323
प्रश्न
Language?
उत्तर
A shared, rule-governed system of symbols used to communicate and generate ideas.
कार्ड 324
प्रश्न
Cooing stage?
उत्तर
Early vowel-like sounds that typically appear before babbling.
कार्ड 325
प्रश्न
Babbling stage?
उत्तर
Infants produce repeated speech-like sounds before meaningful words.
कार्ड 326
प्रश्न
One-word stage?
उत्तर
A child uses single words to express whole ideas.
कार्ड 327
प्रश्न
Grammar?
उत्तर
A language's system of rules for combining and interpreting symbols.
कार्ड 328
प्रश्न
A child assumes everyone can see the picture visible only from the child's side of a model. Which limitation does this show?
उत्तर
Egocentrism: difficulty taking another person's visual perspective.
कार्ड 329
प्रश्न
Crystallized intelligence across adulthood?
उत्तर
Accumulated knowledge and verbal skills often remain stable or increase.
कार्ड 330
प्रश्न
A child revises an animal schema after learning that zebras aren't horses. Which process?
उत्तर
Accommodation.
कार्ड 331
प्रश्न
A teacher first models each step, then removes hints as the learner improves. What support strategy is this?
उत्तर
Scaffolding.
कार्ड 332
प्रश्न
A child predicts that someone will search where that person last saw a toy, not where the toy really is. Which ability does this show?
उत्तर
Theory of mind: recognizing that another person can hold a different belief.
कार्ड 333
प्रश्न
Fluid intelligence across adulthood?
उत्तर
Speedy reasoning with novel problems often peaks earlier and may decline gradually.
कार्ड 334
प्रश्न
An infant searches for a toy after it is covered by a cloth. Which ability does this show?
उत्तर
Object permanence: understanding that the toy still exists when it cannot be seen.
कार्ड 335
प्रश्न
Water is poured from a short glass into a taller, narrower glass, and a child says there is more water. Which concept is missing?
उत्तर
Conservation: understanding that quantity remains the same despite a change in appearance.
कार्ड 336
प्रश्न
Formal operational stage?
उत्तर
Adolescents and adults can reason abstractly and test hypothetical possibilities.
कार्ड 337
प्रश्न
Dementia?
उत्तर
A broad syndrome involving cognitive decline that interferes with daily life; it is not an inevitable part of normal aging.
कार्ड 338
प्रश्न
Phoneme?
उत्तर
The smallest distinctive sound unit in a language.
कार्ड 339
प्रश्न
Bronfenbrenner's ecological systems view?
उत्तर
Development reflects interactions between a person and nested social environments over time.
कार्ड 340
प्रश्न
Temperament?
उत्तर
Early, biologically influenced patterns of emotional reactivity and self-regulation.
कार्ड 341
प्रश्न
Attachment?
उत्तर
An enduring emotional bond that supports proximity and security.
कार्ड 342
प्रश्न
Erikson's infancy conflict?
उत्तर
Trust versus mistrust: dependable care supports a basic sense of security.
कार्ड 343
प्रश्न
Microsystem?
उत्तर
Immediate settings and relationships, such as family, school, peers, and work.
कार्ड 344
प्रश्न
Erikson's toddler conflict?
उत्तर
Autonomy versus shame and doubt: supported self-control builds independence.
कार्ड 345
प्रश्न
Erikson's early-childhood conflict?
उत्तर
Initiative versus guilt: directing activities and plans supports purpose.
कार्ड 346
प्रश्न
Erikson's school-age conflict?
उत्तर
Industry versus inferiority: mastering valued skills supports competence.
कार्ड 347
प्रश्न
Mesosystem?
उत्तर
Connections among a person's microsystems, such as communication between family and school.
कार्ड 348
प्रश्न
Erikson's adolescent conflict?
उत्तर
Identity versus role confusion: exploring and integrating roles supports identity.
कार्ड 349
प्रश्न
Erikson's young-adult conflict?
उत्तर
Intimacy versus isolation: forming close, committed relationships.
कार्ड 350
प्रश्न
Erikson's middle-adult conflict?
उत्तर
Generativity versus stagnation: contributing to others and the next generation.
कार्ड 351
प्रश्न
Exosystem?
उत्तर
Settings that affect a person indirectly, such as a caregiver's workplace.
कार्ड 352
प्रश्न
Morpheme?
उत्तर
The smallest unit that carries meaning.
कार्ड 353
प्रश्न
Telegraphic speech?
उत्तर
Early short phrases that contain essential words while omitting smaller grammatical words.
705 कार्ड
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कार्ड 354
प्रश्न
How do nonverbal gestures support language development?
उत्तर
Pointing, gaze, expression, and movement communicate meaning before and alongside spoken words.
कार्ड 355
प्रश्न
Macrosystem?
उत्तर
The wider culture, values, laws, customs, and economic conditions surrounding development.
कार्ड 356
प्रश्न
Semantics?
उत्तर
The meanings of words and sentences.
कार्ड 357
प्रश्न
A child says “goed” after learning the usual past-tense pattern. What is this?
उत्तर
Overgeneralization: applying a language rule where an exception is required.
कार्ड 358
प्रश्न
What does a sensitive period for language imply?
उत्तर
Early exposure supports fluent development, though later learning remains possible.
कार्ड 359
प्रश्न
Does language completely determine thought?
उत्तर
No. Language can shape attention and categorization, but thought also occurs without words.
कार्ड 360
प्रश्न
Syntax?
उत्तर
Rules for arranging words into phrases and sentences.
कार्ड 361
प्रश्न
A child explores while a caregiver is present, seeks contact at reunion, and is readily comforted. Which attachment pattern fits?
उत्तर
Secure attachment.
कार्ड 362
प्रश्न
How does the behavioral perspective explain behavior?
उत्तर
It focuses on observable behavior learned through conditioning, reinforcement, punishment, and environmental cues.
कार्ड 363
प्रश्न
Authoritative parenting?
उत्तर
High warmth with clear, consistent expectations and age-appropriate autonomy.
कार्ड 364
प्रश्न
Identity achievement?
उत्तर
A person makes commitments after meaningful exploration.
कार्ड 365
प्रश्न
Avoidant attachment pattern?
उत्तर
The child shows little contact-seeking and tends to avoid or ignore the caregiver at reunion.
कार्ड 366
प्रश्न
Classical conditioning?
उत्तर
Learning that one stimulus predicts another, so a previously neutral stimulus elicits a response.
कार्ड 367
प्रश्न
Unconditioned stimulus?
उत्तर
A stimulus that naturally produces a response without prior learning.
कार्ड 368
प्रश्न
Unconditioned response?
उत्तर
The unlearned response naturally produced by an unconditioned stimulus.
कार्ड 369
प्रश्न
Conditioned stimulus?
उत्तर
A previously neutral stimulus that elicits a learned response after association.
कार्ड 370
प्रश्न
Conditioned response?
उत्तर
The learned response to a conditioned stimulus.
कार्ड 371
प्रश्न
Acquisition in classical conditioning?
उत्तर
The initial learning period when the neutral stimulus becomes associated with the unconditioned stimulus.
कार्ड 372
प्रश्न
During acquisition, when should the conditioned stimulus usually appear relative to the unconditioned stimulus?
उत्तर
The conditioned stimulus should appear shortly before the unconditioned stimulus so it predicts what comes next.
कार्ड 373
प्रश्न
Authoritarian parenting?
उत्तर
Low warmth with strict control and little discussion.
कार्ड 374
प्रश्न
Identity diffusion?
उत्तर
A person has neither actively explored alternatives nor made firm commitments.
कार्ड 375
प्रश्न
Extinction in classical conditioning?
उत्तर
The conditioned response weakens when the conditioned stimulus repeatedly appears without the unconditioned stimulus.
कार्ड 376
प्रश्न
Anxious-resistant attachment pattern?
उत्तर
The child seeks contact but remains distressed or resists comfort at reunion.
कार्ड 377
प्रश्न
Permissive parenting?
उत्तर
High warmth with few demands or limits.
कार्ड 378
प्रश्न
Parallel play?
उत्तर
Young children play beside one another with similar materials but little direct coordination.
कार्ड 379
प्रश्न
Imaginary audience?
उत्तर
An adolescent's belief that other people are constantly noticing and evaluating them.
कार्ड 380
प्रश्न
Identity foreclosure?
उत्तर
A person commits without exploring alternatives, often adopting others' expectations.
कार्ड 381
प्रश्न
Disorganized attachment pattern?
उत्तर
The child shows contradictory, confused, or fearful behavior without a consistent reunion strategy.
कार्ड 382
प्रश्न
Neglectful parenting?
उत्तर
Low warmth and low control or involvement.
कार्ड 383
प्रश्न
Chronosystem?
उत्तर
Life transitions and historical changes that alter development over time.
कार्ड 384
प्रश्न
Why is pretend play developmentally useful?
उत्तर
It lets children practice symbols, roles, perspective-taking, and social rules.
कार्ड 385
प्रश्न
Personal fable?
उत्तर
An adolescent's sense that their experiences are unique and that ordinary risks may not apply to them.
कार्ड 386
प्रश्न
Identity moratorium?
उत्तर
A person is actively exploring alternatives without yet making a stable commitment.
कार्ड 387
प्रश्न
Best claim about adverse childhood experiences?
उत्तर
They can raise later health and relationship risks, but they don't determine an individual's outcome.
कार्ड 388
प्रश्न
Separation anxiety in infancy?
उत्तर
Distress when a familiar caregiver leaves; it is common during part of typical development.
कार्ड 389
प्रश्न
What did infant-monkey research suggest about attachment?
उत्तर
Comforting physical contact can be a stronger attachment cue than food alone.
कार्ड 390
प्रश्न
Which research method does the Strange Situation use to assess attachment behavior?
उत्तर
Structured observation: researchers record behavior during standardized separations and reunions.
कार्ड 391
प्रश्न
Emerging adulthood?
उत्तर
A transitional period, often from the late teens through the twenties, marked by identity exploration and changing roles.
कार्ड 392
प्रश्न
Social clock?
उत्तर
Culturally shaped expectations about when major life events should occur.
कार्ड 393
प्रश्न
Erikson's later-adult conflict?
उत्तर
Integrity versus despair: evaluating life with acceptance rather than regret.
कार्ड 394
प्रश्न
Possible selves?
उत्तर
Mental images of who a person might become, hopes to become, or fears becoming.
कार्ड 395
प्रश्न
Stimulus generalization?
उत्तर
Stimuli similar to the conditioned stimulus also trigger the conditioned response.
कार्ड 396
प्रश्न
Operant conditioning?
उत्तर
Learning in which consequences change the future frequency of voluntary behavior.
कार्ड 397
प्रश्न
Law of effect?
उत्तर
Behaviors followed by satisfying consequences become more likely, while behaviors followed by unpleasant consequences become less likely.
कार्ड 398
प्रश्न
Spontaneous recovery?
उत्तर
An extinguished conditioned response briefly returns after a rest period.
कार्ड 399
प्रश्न
Stimulus discrimination?
उत्तर
Learning to respond differently to the conditioned stimulus and similar stimuli.
कार्ड 400
प्रश्न
Reinforcement?
उत्तर
Any consequence that increases a behavior.
कार्ड 401
प्रश्न
Higher-order conditioning?
उत्तर
An established conditioned stimulus helps a new neutral stimulus become conditioned without direct pairing with the original unconditioned stimulus.
कार्ड 402
प्रश्न
Counterconditioning?
उत्तर
Replacing an unwanted conditioned response by pairing the trigger with a new, incompatible response.
कार्ड 403
प्रश्न
Habituation?
उत्तर
A reduced response after repeated exposure to a harmless, unchanged stimulus.
कार्ड 404
प्रश्न
Punishment?
उत्तर
Any consequence that decreases a behavior.
कार्ड 405
प्रश्न
Partial reinforcement?
उत्तर
Reinforcing only some responses; learning is slower, but behavior resists extinction.
कार्ड 406
प्रश्न
Why can taste aversion form after one delayed pairing?
उत्तर
Biological preparedness makes certain food–illness associations especially easy to learn.
कार्ड 407
प्रश्न
Most conditioning trials take 2–6 attempts, but one participant needs 24. What shape will the trial-count distribution likely have?
उत्तर
It will be right-skewed because the unusually high value stretches the upper tail.
कार्ड 408
प्रश्न
Participants may encounter distressing images in a learning study. What must an institutional review board evaluate before approval?
उत्तर
Whether the scientific value justifies the risks and whether safeguards reduce those risks to an acceptable level.
कार्ड 409
प्रश्न
Fixed-ratio schedule?
उत्तर
Reinforcement follows a set number of responses.
कार्ड 410
प्रश्न
Observational learning?
उत्तर
Learning by watching others and the consequences they receive.
कार्ड 411
प्रश्न
A teacher adds praise after completed homework, and homework completion increases. Which consequence is this?
उत्तर
Positive reinforcement.
कार्ड 412
प्रश्न
Primary reinforcer?
उत्तर
A naturally rewarding stimulus tied to biological needs, such as food when hungry.
कार्ड 413
प्रश्न
Variable-ratio schedule?
उत्तर
Reinforcement follows an unpredictable number of responses, producing persistent responding.
कार्ड 414
प्रश्न
Modeling?
उत्तर
Performing a behavior after observing it in another person.
कार्ड 415
प्रश्न
Which response pattern is typical of a fixed-ratio schedule?
उत्तर
A high response rate followed by a brief pause after each reward.
कार्ड 416
प्रश्न
Fastening a seat belt stops an unpleasant alarm, making future fastening more likely. Which consequence is this?
उत्तर
Negative reinforcement.
कार्ड 417
प्रश्न
Conditioned reinforcer?
उत्तर
A learned reward that gains value through association, such as money or praise.
कार्ड 418
प्रश्न
A child sees a classmate praised for sharing and then shares more often. Which process may explain the change?
उत्तर
Vicarious reinforcement.
कार्ड 419
प्रश्न
Fixed-interval schedule?
उत्तर
The first response after a set amount of time is reinforced.
कार्ड 420
प्रश्न
Which response pattern is typical of a variable-ratio schedule?
उत्तर
A high, steady response rate with little or no pause after rewards.
कार्ड 421
प्रश्न
A driver receives a fine, and speeding decreases. Which consequence is this?
उत्तर
Positive punishment.
कार्ड 422
प्रश्न
Shaping?
उत्तर
Reinforcing successive approximations toward a target behavior.
कार्ड 423
प्रश्न
Extinction in operant conditioning?
उत्तर
A behavior weakens when it no longer produces reinforcement.
कार्ड 424
प्रश्न
Variable-interval schedule?
उत्तर
The first response after an unpredictable amount of time is reinforced.
कार्ड 425
प्रश्न
A teenager loses gaming access, and missed curfews decrease. Which consequence is this?
उत्तर
Negative punishment.
कार्ड 426
प्रश्न
Learned helplessness?
उत्तर
After repeated uncontrollable negative events, a person or animal stops trying to escape even when escape becomes possible.
कार्ड 427
प्रश्न
Continuous reinforcement?
उत्तर
Reinforcing every occurrence of a behavior; learning is fast, but extinction is also fast.
कार्ड 428
प्रश्न
A response record rises slowly after each reward, then accelerates as the next fixed time approaches. Which schedule produced this scalloped pattern?
उत्तर
A fixed-interval schedule.
कार्ड 429
प्रश्न
Discriminative stimulus?
उत्तर
A cue that signals when a particular response is likely to be reinforced.
कार्ड 430
प्रश्न
Operant generalization versus discrimination?
उत्तर
Generalization spreads a learned response to similar cues; discrimination limits it to cues that signal reinforcement.
कार्ड 431
प्रश्न
Instinctive drift?
उत्तर
A learned behavior shifts toward an animal's biologically predisposed behavior.
कार्ड 432
प्रश्न
Which response pattern is typical of a variable-interval schedule?
उत्तर
A steady, moderate response rate because reinforcement can become available at unpredictable times.
कार्ड 433
प्रश्न
How can superstitious behavior develop through operant conditioning?
उत्तर
A coincidental reward can reinforce a behavior that didn't actually cause the outcome.
कार्ड 434
प्रश्न
How does similarity to a model affect observational learning?
उत्तर
Observers are often more likely to attend to and imitate models they see as similar or relevant.
कार्ड 435
प्रश्न
Vicarious conditioning?
उत्तर
Learning an emotional response by observing another person's reaction to a stimulus.
कार्ड 436
प्रश्न
A rat makes 12, 13, 11, and 12 responses in four equal time blocks, with rewards delivered at unpredictable times. Which schedule best fits this steady pattern?
उत्तर
A variable-interval schedule.
कार्ड 437
प्रश्न
Children imitate a rewarded model more than a punished model. Supported claim?
उत्तर
Observed consequences can influence whether learned behavior is performed.
कार्ड 438
प्रश्न
Why randomly assign children to watch either an aggressive or a calm model?
उत्तर
Random assignment helps balance preexisting differences between groups, strengthening a causal inference about the model's effect.
कार्ड 439
प्रश्न
Latent learning?
उत्तर
Learning that occurs without obvious reinforcement and appears later when there is an incentive.
कार्ड 440
प्रश्न
Cognitive map?
उत्तर
A mental representation of the layout of an environment.
कार्ड 441
प्रश्न
Insight learning?
उत्तर
A sudden cognitive solution without visible trial-and-error steps.
कार्ड 442
प्रश्न
Biological preparedness?
उत्तर
An evolved readiness to learn some associations more easily than others.
कार्ड 443
प्रश्न
What can mirror-neuron activity show?
उत्तर
Some neural systems respond during both action and observation, though this alone doesn't explain all imitation or empathy.
कार्ड 444
प्रश्न
Attribution?
उत्तर
An explanation for the cause of a person's behavior or an event.
कार्ड 445
प्रश्न
Attitude?
उत्तर
An evaluation of a person, object, issue, or behavior, involving beliefs, feelings, and action tendencies.
कार्ड 446
प्रश्न
Upward social comparison?
उत्तर
Comparing oneself with someone doing better, which can inspire improvement or reduce satisfaction.
कार्ड 447
प्रश्न
Optimistic explanatory style?
उत्तर
Explaining setbacks as temporary, specific, and changeable rather than permanent and global.
कार्ड 448
प्रश्न
Situational attribution?
उत्तर
Explaining behavior through external circumstances or social context.
कार्ड 449
प्रश्न
A person who values health keeps vaping and feels pressure to change either the behavior or the belief. What is this discomfort?
उत्तर
Cognitive dissonance.
कार्ड 450
प्रश्न
Downward social comparison?
उत्तर
Comparing oneself with someone doing worse, which can protect self-evaluation.
कार्ड 451
प्रश्न
Internal locus of control?
उत्तर
The belief that one's actions strongly influence outcomes.
कार्ड 452
प्रश्न
Dispositional attribution?
उत्तर
Explaining behavior through internal traits, motives, or abilities.
कार्ड 453
प्रश्न
Pessimistic explanatory style?
उत्तर
Explaining setbacks as lasting, widespread, and rooted in personal failure.
कार्ड 454
प्रश्न
Relative deprivation?
उत्तर
Feeling disadvantaged by comparing one's situation with the situation one believes others have.
कार्ड 455
प्रश्न
External locus of control?
उत्तर
The belief that outcomes mainly depend on luck, fate, or powerful outside forces.
कार्ड 456
प्रश्न
Fundamental attribution error?
उत्तर
Overestimating personality and underestimating the situation when explaining someone else's behavior.
कार्ड 457
प्रश्न
Halo effect?
उत्तर
One favorable trait shapes an overly positive overall judgment of a person.
कार्ड 458
प्रश्न
Self-fulfilling prophecy?
उत्तर
An expectation changes behavior in ways that help make the expected outcome occur.
कार्ड 459
प्रश्न
Mere-exposure effect?
उत्तर
Repeated exposure to a neutral stimulus can increase liking.
कार्ड 460
प्रश्न
A person blames their own lateness on traffic but another person's lateness on carelessness. Which attribution pattern is this?
उत्तर
The actor–observer difference.
कार्ड 461
प्रश्न
A voter compares evidence and checks the logic of a policy argument. Which persuasion route is being used?
उत्तर
The central route.
कार्ड 462
प्रश्न
Effort justification?
उत्तर
Valuing an outcome more after investing substantial effort in it, which reduces dissonance.
कार्ड 463
प्रश्न
Stereotype?
उत्तर
A generalized belief about members of a group.
कार्ड 464
प्रश्न
A student credits skill for an A but blames an unfair test for an F. Which bias does this show?
उत्तर
Self-serving bias.
कार्ड 465
प्रश्न
A shopper favors an unfamiliar product because a popular celebrity endorses it. Which persuasion route is being used?
उत्तर
The peripheral route.
कार्ड 466
प्रश्न
Someone praises a dull task for a tiny reward, then reports liking it more. Which dissonance principle fits?
उत्तर
Insufficient justification: the small reward provides too little external explanation, so attitude change reduces dissonance.
कार्ड 467
प्रश्न
Prejudice?
उत्तर
An unjustified attitude or emotional response toward a group and its members.
कार्ड 468
प्रश्न
The same 40 workers complete equal-length tasks under both workloads:

Workload Errors

Low 2

High 8

Which attribution is better supported?
उत्तर
A situational attribution is better supported: with the same workers and equal exposure, the high-workload condition has more errors, though the table alone doesn't prove causation.
कार्ड 469
प्रश्न
Why does source credibility affect persuasion?
उत्तर
People are more likely to accept a message from a source seen as knowledgeable and trustworthy.
कार्ड 470
प्रश्न
Conformity?
उत्तर
Adjusting behavior or beliefs to match a group.
कार्ड 471
प्रश्न
Several witnesses each wait for someone else to help during an emergency. Which effect is this?
उत्तर
The bystander effect.
कार्ड 472
प्रश्न
Diffusion of responsibility?
उत्तर
Each person feels less personally responsible when others are available to act.
कार्ड 473
प्रश्न
How can taking on a role affect attitude?
उत्तर
Repeated role-consistent behavior can gradually shift beliefs and self-perception.
कार्ड 474
प्रश्न
In-group bias?
उत्तर
Favoring one's own group over other groups.
कार्ड 475
प्रश्न
After agreeing to display a small safety sticker, a resident later agrees to place a large sign. Which technique is this?
उत्तर
The foot-in-the-door technique.
कार्ड 476
प्रश्न
A researcher recruits the first 60 students leaving one school cafeteria. What sampling method is this, and what is the main limit?
उत्तर
Convenience sampling; the sample may not represent the school's students or a broader population as well as a random sample would.
कार्ड 477
प्रश्न
When do attitudes best predict behavior?
उत्तर
When the attitude is specific, accessible, personally important, and social pressure is limited.
कार्ड 478
प्रश्न
Discrimination?
उत्तर
Unjustified behavior toward people because of group membership.
कार्ड 479
प्रश्न
Out-group homogeneity effect?
उत्तर
Perceiving members of another group as more alike than members of one's own group.
कार्ड 480
प्रश्न
After refusing an extreme request, a person agrees to a smaller related request. Which technique is this?
उत्तर
The door-in-the-face technique.
कार्ड 481
प्रश्न
A study finds r = +0.72 between attention to message evidence and attitude change. What does the coefficient show?
उत्तर
A strong positive association: greater attention tends to accompany greater attitude change, but the correlation does not establish causation.
कार्ड 482
प्रश्न
Persuasion ratings cluster near 2 and 9 on a 10-point scale, with few scores near 5. What distribution shape does this suggest?
उत्तर
A bimodal distribution, with two distinct peaks.
कार्ड 483
प्रश्न
Just-world belief?
उत्तर
The assumption that people generally get what they deserve, which can encourage victim blaming.
कार्ड 484
प्रश्न
Implicit attitude?
उत्तर
An automatic evaluation that can affect responses without deliberate awareness.
कार्ड 485
प्रश्न
Ethnocentrism?
उत्तर
Judging other cultures by the standards of one's own culture and treating one's own as superior.
कार्ड 486
प्रश्न
How do confirmation bias and belief perseverance maintain an attitude?
उत्तर
People may favor supporting evidence and retain the belief even after its original support is discredited.
कार्ड 487
प्रश्न
Normative social influence?
उत्तर
Conforming to gain approval or avoid rejection.
कार्ड 488
प्रश्न
Psychodynamic view of personality?
उत्तर
Unconscious conflicts and motives influence personality and behavior.
कार्ड 489
प्रश्न
Norm of reciprocity?
उत्तर
The expectation that people should return help or favors.
कार्ड 490
प्रश्न
Individualism?
उत्तर
A cultural orientation that gives greater priority to personal goals, autonomy, and individual identity.
कार्ड 491
प्रश्न
Informational social influence?
उत्तर
Conforming because the group is treated as a source of accurate information.
कार्ड 492
प्रश्न
Id?
उत्तर
The psychodynamic component driven by immediate gratification and the pleasure principle.
कार्ड 493
प्रश्न
Altruism?
उत्तर
Helping intended to benefit another person without requiring a personal reward.
कार्ड 494
प्रश्न
Social norm?
उत्तर
A group's shared expectation about acceptable behavior.
कार्ड 495
प्रश्न
What tends to increase conformity?
उत्तर
Unanimity, group size up to a point, public responses, ambiguity, and group importance.
कार्ड 496
प्रश्न
Ego?
उत्तर
The psychodynamic component that manages reality and balances competing demands.
कार्ड 497
प्रश्न
A skilled runner improves before a crowd, but a beginner makes more errors. Which group effect fits?
उत्तर
Social facilitation: an audience strengthens the dominant response.
कार्ड 498
प्रश्न
Collectivism?
उत्तर
A cultural orientation that gives greater priority to group goals, interdependence, and shared identity.
कार्ड 499
प्रश्न
Obedience?
उत्तर
Changing behavior in response to a direct command from an authority.
कार्ड 500
प्रश्न
Superego?
उत्तर
The psychodynamic component representing internalized moral standards.
कार्ड 501
प्रश्न
A person continues acting as if a painful diagnosis cannot be real despite clear evidence. Which defense mechanism fits?
उत्तर
Denial.
कार्ड 502
प्रश्न
Social-responsibility norm?
उत्तर
The expectation that people should help those who depend on them or need assistance.
कार्ड 503
प्रश्न
How does proximity affect attraction?
उत्तर
Frequent contact creates opportunities for familiarity and relationship development.
कार्ड 504
प्रश्न
What tends to increase obedience?
उत्तर
A legitimate nearby authority, gradual escalation, institutional support, and distance from the affected person.
कार्ड 505
प्रश्न
After an argument with a supervisor, an employee snaps at a roommate. Which defense mechanism fits?
उत्तर
Displacement.
कार्ड 506
प्रश्न
Social loafing?
उत्तर
Exerting less effort when individual contributions to a group task aren't identifiable.
कार्ड 507
प्रश्न
Multiculturalism?
उत्तर
Recognizing and supporting distinct cultural identities within a shared society or institution.
कार्ड 508
प्रश्न
How does similarity affect attraction?
उत्तर
Shared attitudes, values, and interests often increase liking.
कार्ड 509
प्रश्न
A person who feels hostile insists that everyone else is hostile toward them. Which defense mechanism fits?
उत्तर
Projection.
कार्ड 510
प्रश्न
Helping falls as group size rises. Best explanation?
उत्तर
Responsibility diffuses across more bystanders; the result doesn't show that groups eliminate empathy.
कार्ड 511
प्रश्न
Deindividuation?
उत्तर
Reduced self-awareness and restraint in an anonymous or arousing group setting.
कार्ड 512
प्रश्न
Group polarization?
उत्तर
Discussion strengthens the group's initial average tendency.
कार्ड 513
प्रश्न
After being rejected, an applicant says the opportunity was worthless anyway. Which defense mechanism fits?
उत्तर
Rationalization.
कार्ड 514
प्रश्न
A cohesive team ignores warnings and pressures doubters to preserve agreement. Which process is this?
उत्तर
Groupthink.
कार्ड 515
प्रश्न
Pluralistic ignorance?
उत्तर
People privately reject a norm or perceive danger but assume others' calm behavior means it is accepted or safe.
कार्ड 516
प्रश्न
Social trap?
उत्तर
Individuals pursue short-term self-interest that produces a worse long-term outcome for everyone.
कार्ड 517
प्रश्न
Reaction formation?
उत्तर
Expressing the opposite of an unacceptable impulse.
कार्ड 518
प्रश्न
Superordinate goal?
उत्तर
A shared goal that competing groups can reach only through cooperation.
कार्ड 519
प्रश्न
False-consensus effect?
उत्तर
Overestimating how widely other people share one's beliefs or behavior.
कार्ड 520
प्रश्न
Industrial-organizational psychology?
उत्तर
Applying psychological science to work, organizations, hiring, performance, and employee well-being.
कार्ड 521
प्रश्न
Repression?
उत्तर
Unconsciously blocking distressing thoughts or impulses from awareness.
कार्ड 522
प्रश्न
Burnout?
उत्तर
Work-related exhaustion, detachment or cynicism, and reduced sense of effectiveness after chronic stress.
कार्ड 523
प्रश्न
Unconditional positive regard?
उत्तर
Acceptance and respect that aren't dependent on meeting another person's conditions.
कार्ड 524
प्रश्न
Trait?
उत्तर
A relatively stable tendency to think, feel, or behave in a certain way.
कार्ड 525
प्रश्न
Regression as a defense mechanism?
उत्तर
Reverting to an earlier pattern of behavior when facing stress or conflict.
कार्ड 526
प्रश्न
Reciprocal determinism?
उत्तर
Behavior, personal factors, and environment influence one another.
कार्ड 527
प्रश्न
Self-efficacy?
उत्तर
Belief in one's ability to perform a specific task or meet a challenge.
कार्ड 528
प्रश्न
Self-concept in humanistic theory?
उत्तर
A person's organized understanding of who they are.
कार्ड 529
प्रश्न
Sublimation as a defense mechanism?
उत्तर
Redirecting an unacceptable impulse into a socially valued activity.
कार्ड 530
प्रश्न
A person seeks novel ideas, art, and unfamiliar experiences. Which Big Five trait is most evident?
उत्तर
Openness.
कार्ड 531
प्रश्न
Personality inventory?
उत्तर
A standardized self-report questionnaire used to measure traits or patterns.
कार्ड 532
प्रश्न
Self-actualizing tendency?
उत्तर
The humanistic idea that people are motivated to grow and fulfill their capacities.
कार्ड 533
प्रश्न
Self-esteem?
उत्तर
A person's overall evaluation of their worth or value.
कार्ड 534
प्रश्न
Instinct in motivation research?
उत्तर
An innate, typically fixed behavior pattern in nonhuman animals; this framework doesn't classify human motivation as instinctual.
कार्ड 535
प्रश्न
A person plans carefully, meets deadlines, and follows through. Which Big Five trait is most evident?
उत्तर
Conscientiousness.
कार्ड 536
प्रश्न
Projective test?
उत्तर
An ambiguous stimulus used to invite responses thought to reflect inner themes; reliability and validity can be limited.
कार्ड 537
प्रश्न
How does factor analysis help trait research?
उत्तर
It identifies clusters of correlated behaviors or questionnaire items that may reflect broader traits.
कार्ड 538
प्रश्न
Drive-reduction theory?
उत्तर
A physiological need creates arousal that motivates behavior to restore balance.
कार्ड 539
प्रश्न
A person is sociable, assertive, and energized by group interaction. Which Big Five trait is most evident?
उत्तर
Extraversion.
कार्ड 540
प्रश्न
Person–situation debate?
उत्तर
It asks how much behavior reflects stable traits versus changing contexts.
कार्ड 541
प्रश्न
A training study reports Cohen's d = 0.65 for improvement in self-efficacy. What does this statistic describe?
उत्तर
The standardized size of the group difference; 0.65 is commonly interpreted as a moderate effect, not proof that the result will matter equally in every setting.
कार्ड 542
प्रश्न
Homeostasis?
उत्तर
The body's tendency to maintain a stable internal state.
कार्ड 543
प्रश्न
Incentive theory?
उत्तर
External rewards or goals pull behavior toward them.
कार्ड 544
प्रश्न
Big Five agreeableness?
उत्तर
Compassion, trust, and cooperativeness.
कार्ड 545
प्रश्न
A student retakes a questionnaire after an unusually low self-efficacy score and scores closer to their usual level. What statistical tendency may explain part of the change?
उत्तर
Regression toward the mean: an extreme score is often followed by a less extreme score because temporary influences are unlikely to repeat exactly.
कार्ड 546
प्रश्न
A student must choose between two appealing internships. Which motivational conflict is this?
उत्तर
An approach–approach conflict.
कार्ड 547
प्रश्न
Arousal theory of motivation?
उत्तर
People seek a personally suitable level of stimulation.
कार्ड 548
प्रश्न
Big Five emotional stability?
उत्तर
A tendency toward calm and resilience; it is the inverse of neuroticism.
कार्ड 549
प्रश्न
What regulates hunger?
उत्तर
Biological signals such as ghrelin and leptin interact with learning, culture, stress, and food cues.
कार्ड 550
प्रश्न
Three broad components of emotion?
उत्तर
Physiological arousal, expressive behavior, and conscious experience or appraisal.
कार्ड 551
प्रश्न
Self-determination theory?
उत्तर
Motivation grows when autonomy, competence, and relatedness are supported.
कार्ड 552
प्रश्न
Emotion regulation?
उत्तर
Processes used to influence which emotions arise, when they arise, and how they are expressed.
कार्ड 553
प्रश्न
Sensation-seeking?
उत्तर
A tendency to pursue novel, varied, or intense experiences, sometimes despite risk.
कार्ड 554
प्रश्न
Cognitive appraisal in emotion?
उत्तर
Interpreting what an event means for one's goals, safety, or well-being.
कार्ड 555
प्रश्न
Intrinsic motivation?
उत्तर
Doing an activity for its own interest or satisfaction.
कार्ड 556
प्रश्न
Display rules?
उत्तर
Cultural norms that shape when and how emotions are expressed.
कार्ड 557
प्रश्न
Arousal and performance relationship?
उत्तर
Moderate arousal often supports difficult tasks, while higher arousal can help simple or well-learned tasks.
कार्ड 558
प्रश्न
A promotion offers higher pay but requires an unwanted move. Which motivational conflict is this?
उत्तर
An approach–avoidance conflict.
कार्ड 559
प्रश्न
Extrinsic motivation?
उत्तर
Doing an activity for an external reward or to avoid punishment.
कार्ड 560
प्रश्न
Achievement motivation?
उत्तर
The drive to meet standards, master tasks, and pursue success.
कार्ड 561
प्रश्न
Four sensation-seeking dimensions?
उत्तर
Thrill and adventure seeking, experience seeking, disinhibition, and boredom susceptibility.
कार्ड 562
प्रश्न
A person must either pay a fine or complete an unpleasant course. Which motivational conflict is this?
उत्तर
An avoidance–avoidance conflict.
कार्ड 563
प्रश्न
Overjustification effect?
उत्तर
Expected external rewards can reduce intrinsic interest in an activity already enjoyed.
कार्ड 564
प्रश्न
Belongingness motivation?
उत्तर
The drive to form and maintain stable, positive relationships with other people.
कार्ड 565
प्रश्न
Study time changed after students chose their own topic:

Condition Mean minutes

Assigned topic 34

Chosen topic 47

What is the observed mean difference?
उत्तर
13 minutes more in the chosen-topic condition; the table alone does not show whether the difference is statistically significant.
कार्ड 566
प्रश्न
Facial-feedback effect?
उत्तर
Facial expressions can influence the emotion a person experiences.
कार्ड 567
प्रश्न
Can bodily arousal occur before conscious interpretation?
उत्तर
Yes. Some emotional responses begin quickly, while later appraisal shapes the experience.
कार्ड 568
प्रश्न
A speaker reframes a racing heart as readiness rather than danger. Which emotion-regulation strategy is this?
उत्तर
Cognitive reappraisal.
कार्ड 569
प्रश्न
Broaden-and-build view?
उत्तर
Positive emotion can widen attention and action possibilities, helping build lasting resources.
कार्ड 570
प्रश्न
Which emotions often appear across cultures?
उत्तर
Anger, disgust, sadness, happiness, surprise, and fear, though findings on universality are mixed.
कार्ड 571
प्रश्न
How can the same arousal become different emotions?
उत्तर
Context and cognitive interpretation can label similar physiological arousal differently.
कार्ड 572
प्रश्न
Expressive suppression?
उत्तर
Inhibiting the outward display of emotion after it has arisen.
कार्ड 573
प्रश्न
How does acute stress affect the body?
उत्तर
It activates sympathetic and hormonal responses that mobilize energy for immediate demands.
कार्ड 574
प्रश्न
Cultures differ in public emotional expression. What shouldn't be concluded?
उत्तर
That people in one culture don't experience the emotion; display rules can alter expression.
कार्ड 575
प्रश्न
In a medication study, neither participants nor outcome raters know who receives the active drug or an inactive pill. What two safeguards are present?
उत्तर
A placebo control and double-blinding, which reduce expectancy effects and observer bias.
कार्ड 576
प्रश्न
A scatterplot rises from lower left to upper right, with points close to a line. What relationship does it show?
उत्तर
A strong positive correlation: higher values of one variable tend to occur with higher values of the other.
कार्ड 577
प्रश्न
Health psychology?
उत्तर
The study of how biological, psychological, and social factors affect health and illness.
कार्ड 578
प्रश्न
Positive psychology?
उत्तर
The scientific study of strengths, well-being, and conditions that help people and communities thrive.
कार्ड 579
प्रश्न
Stress?
उत्तर
The process of appraising and responding to events viewed as threatening or demanding.
कार्ड 580
प्रश्न
A study records stress ratings from 1 to 10 and also collects open-ended descriptions. Which data are quantitative and which are qualitative?
उत्तर
The numeric ratings are quantitative; the written descriptions are qualitative.
कार्ड 581
प्रश्न
Why do sleep, exercise, and nutrition matter to health psychology?
उत्तर
They are behaviors that interact with stress and biology to influence health outcomes.
कार्ड 582
प्रश्न
Resilience?
उत्तर
Adapting or recovering after adversity; it is a process, not a guarantee of being unaffected.
कार्ड 583
प्रश्न
Stressor?
उत्तर
An event or condition that challenges a person's ability to cope.
कार्ड 584
प्रश्न
General adaptation syndrome?
उत्तर
A three-phase pattern of alarm, resistance, and exhaustion under prolonged stress.
कार्ड 585
प्रश्न
A worker makes a schedule and asks for resources to reduce a controllable workload. Which coping approach is this?
उत्तर
Problem-focused coping.
कार्ड 586
प्रश्न
A stress study uses nonhuman animals. What ethical duties apply?
उत्तर
Researchers need scientific justification, humane care, the least possible pain and distress, and oversight by an institutional animal care and use committee.
कार्ड 587
प्रश्न
A student first judges whether an upcoming exam threatens an important goal. Which appraisal is this?
उत्तर
Primary appraisal.
कार्ड 588
प्रश्न
What happens during the alarm phase of general adaptation syndrome?
उत्तर
A fight, flight, or freeze response mobilizes resources when the stressor is first encountered.
कार्ड 589
प्रश्न
How can major trauma and daily hassles both create stress?
उत्तर
One can overwhelm through intensity, while repeated smaller demands can accumulate over time.
कार्ड 590
प्रश्न
A person uses breathing and social support to manage feelings about an unchangeable loss. Which coping approach is this?
उत्तर
Emotion-focused coping.
कार्ड 591
प्रश्न
The student next considers available study time, tutoring, and coping options. Which appraisal is this?
उत्तर
Secondary appraisal.
कार्ड 592
प्रश्न
Why can prolonged exhaustion increase illness risk?
उत्तर
Stress resources are depleted, and sustained physiological activation can weaken health and immune function.
कार्ड 593
प्रश्न
Adverse childhood experiences?
उत्तर
Potentially traumatic childhood conditions linked with higher later health risks, without determining any one person's outcome.
कार्ड 594
प्रश्न
How can social support protect health?
उत्तर
It provides practical help, belonging, perspective, and a buffer against stress.
कार्ड 595
प्रश्न
Eustress versus distress?
उत्तर
Eustress is experienced as motivating or manageable; distress is experienced as harmful or overwhelming.
कार्ड 596
प्रश्न
Tend-and-befriend response?
उत्तर
Coping with stress by caring for needs and seeking supportive connection, a pattern observed especially among women.
कार्ड 597
प्रश्न
Two interviewees say, “After the setback, I adjusted my plan” and “I recovered and kept working toward my goal.” Which well-being concept appears in both qualitative responses?
उत्तर
Resilience; both accounts describe adapting or recovering after adversity.
कार्ड 598
प्रश्न
Biofeedback?
उत्तर
Using real-time information about bodily activity to learn voluntary regulation of that activity.
कार्ड 599
प्रश्न
How does perceived control affect stress?
उत्तर
A sense of control often reduces stress, while uncontrollability can intensify it.
कार्ड 600
प्रश्न
Psychoneuroimmunology?
उत्तर
The study of interactions among psychological processes, the nervous system, hormones, and immune function.
कार्ड 601
प्रश्न
Subjective well-being?
उत्तर
A person's life satisfaction together with the balance of positive and negative emotion.
कार्ड 602
प्रश्न
Psychological disorder?
उत्तर
A clinically significant disturbance in thought, emotion, or behavior that causes distress or impairment.
कार्ड 603
प्रश्न
How can gratitude practice affect well-being?
उत्तर
Regularly noticing valued experiences can increase positive emotion for some people, though effects vary.
कार्ड 604
प्रश्न
A school survey samples 120 students from a population of 1,800 enrolled students. What are the sample and population?
उत्तर
The 120 respondents are the sample; all 1,800 enrolled students are the target population.
कार्ड 605
प्रश्न
Signature strengths?
उत्तर
Character strengths that are especially central and natural to a person and can be used deliberately.
कार्ड 606
प्रश्न
Biopsychosocial model?
उत्तर
Biological, psychological, and sociocultural factors interact in health and disorder.
कार्ड 607
प्रश्न
Six broad virtue categories in positive psychology?
उत्तर
Wisdom, courage, humanity, justice, temperance, and transcendence.
कार्ड 608
प्रश्न
Posttraumatic growth?
उत्तर
Positive psychological change that can develop through struggling with trauma or major stress; it doesn't erase harm.
कार्ड 609
प्रश्न
An optional well-being survey is completed mostly by students who already attend wellness clubs. How does this affect generalizability?
उत्तर
Self-selection creates sampling bias, so the results may not generalize to students with different interests or experiences.
कार्ड 610
प्रश्न
A survey asks people to report how often they exercise. What limitation should the researcher consider?
उत्तर
Self-report can be distorted by inaccurate memory, question wording, or socially desirable answers.
कार्ड 611
प्रश्न
A treatment comparison reports p = .03 with a preset alpha of .05. Is the result statistically significant?
उत्तर
Yes. Because .03 is below .05, the result is statistically significant, though that does not show the effect is large or important.
कार्ड 612
प्रश्न
A striking well-being result appears in one small study. What should happen before confidence grows?
उत्तर
Independent replication and critical peer review should test whether the finding is reliable and the methods support the claim.
कार्ड 613
प्रश्न
Biological explanation of disorder?
उत्तर
It focuses on genetic, neural, hormonal, or other physiological factors.
कार्ड 614
प्रश्न
Attention-deficit/hyperactivity disorder?
उत्तर
A neurodevelopmental disorder involving developmentally inappropriate inattention and/or hyperactivity-impulsivity that impairs functioning.
कार्ड 615
प्रश्न
Purpose of the DSM?
उत्तर
It supplies shared diagnostic categories and criteria for communication, research, and treatment planning.
कार्ड 616
प्रश्न
What must informed consent explain before people join a psychology study?
उत्तर
The study's general nature, foreseeable risks and benefits, confidentiality limits, voluntary participation, and the right to withdraw. Research with minors also generally requires guardian permission and the child's assent.
कार्ड 617
प्रश्न
Behavioral explanation of disorder?
उत्तर
It focuses on maladaptive responses learned through conditioning or observation.
कार्ड 618
प्रश्न
Autism spectrum disorder?
उत्तर
A neurodevelopmental disorder involving differences in social communication and restricted or repetitive behavior, with varied support needs.
कार्ड 619
प्रश्न
Schizophrenia's broad symptom areas?
उत्तर
Delusions, hallucinations, disorganized thought or speech, disorganized movement, and negative symptoms.
कार्ड 620
प्रश्न
Major depressive disorder?
उत्तर
A sustained depressive episode with mood, cognitive, physical, and motivational changes that impair functioning.
कार्ड 621
प्रश्न
Specific phobia?
उत्तर
Intense, persistent fear of a particular object or situation that leads to avoidance or distress.
कार्ड 622
प्रश्न
Obsessive-compulsive disorder?
उत्तर
Obsessions, compulsions, or both consume time or cause significant distress or impairment.
कार्ड 623
प्रश्न
Dissociative amnesia?
उत्तर
Inability to recall important autobiographical information, usually related to trauma or stress, beyond ordinary forgetting.
कार्ड 624
प्रश्न
Bipolar I disorder?
उत्तर
A bipolar disorder defined by at least one full manic episode, often with depressive episodes.
कार्ड 625
प्रश्न
Posttraumatic stress disorder?
उत्तर
Persistent intrusion, avoidance, negative mood or thinking, and heightened arousal after trauma exposure.
कार्ड 626
प्रश्न
Anorexia nervosa?
उत्तर
Persistent energy restriction, significantly low body weight, intense fear of weight gain, and disturbed body experience.
कार्ड 627
प्रश्न
Cognitive explanation of disorder?
उत्तर
It focuses on maladaptive beliefs, interpretations, and thinking patterns.
कार्ड 628
प्रश्न
Bipolar II disorder?
उत्तर
A bipolar disorder involving hypomanic and major depressive episodes without a full manic episode.
कार्ड 629
प्रश्न
Purpose of the ICD?
उत्तर
The World Health Organization's classification system supplies internationally used codes and categories for health conditions, including mental disorders.
कार्ड 630
प्रश्न
Bulimia nervosa?
उत्तर
Repeated binge eating followed by compensatory behavior, with self-evaluation strongly influenced by body shape or weight.
कार्ड 631
प्रश्न
What broadly defines a personality disorder pattern?
उत्तर
An enduring, inflexible pattern that departs from cultural expectations, begins in adolescence or early adulthood, and causes distress or impairment.
कार्ड 632
प्रश्न
Ataque de nervios?
उत्तर
A culture-related syndrome, described especially in some Latin American and Caribbean communities, involving an acute episode of intense emotional distress and loss of control.
कार्ड 633
प्रश्न
Psychodynamic explanation of disorder?
उत्तर
It focuses on unconscious conflicts and early relationships.
कार्ड 634
प्रश्न
Three considerations when identifying a psychological disorder?
उत्तर
Dysfunction, experienced distress, and deviation from social norms, interpreted with cultural context.
कार्ड 635
प्रश्न
When may deception be ethically considered in research, and what must follow?
उत्तर
Only when justified, minimal-risk, and not replaceable by a practical alternative; researchers must debrief participants promptly and explain the deception.
कार्ड 636
प्रश्न
Comorbidity?
उत्तर
The presence of two or more disorders in the same person.
कार्ड 637
प्रश्न
Humanistic explanation of distress?
उत्तर
It focuses on blocked growth, incongruence, and conditions of worth.
कार्ड 638
प्रश्न
Confidential versus anonymous research data?
उत्तर
Confidential data can be linked to identities but are protected; anonymous data are collected without identifying links.
कार्ड 639
प्रश्न
Stigma around mental disorder?
उत्तर
Negative stereotypes and discrimination that can increase distress and discourage help-seeking.
कार्ड 640
प्रश्न
Why must diagnosis consider culture?
उत्तर
Norms affect how distress is expressed and interpreted, so behavior can't be judged outside its context.
कार्ड 641
प्रश्न
Sociocultural explanation of disorder?
उत्तर
It focuses on social roles, inequality, relationships, discrimination, and cultural context.
कार्ड 642
प्रश्न
Two clinicians independently use the same criteria. What quality is being checked?
उत्तर
Interrater reliability.
कार्ड 643
प्रश्न
A category improves communication but overlaps another category. Balanced conclusion?
उत्तर
Classification is useful, but boundaries and comorbidity limit the idea of perfectly separate disorders.
कार्ड 644
प्रश्न
Best account of neurodevelopmental-disorder causes?
उत्तर
Genetic, physiological, and environmental factors may interact; no single cause explains every case.
कार्ड 645
प्रश्न
Evolutionary explanation of disorder?
उत्तर
It asks whether a behavior or mental process reflects an adaptation, mismatch, or cost related to survival and reproduction.
कार्ड 646
प्रश्न
Delusion?
उत्तर
A firmly held false belief that persists despite strong contrary evidence and isn't explained by cultural context.
कार्ड 647
प्रश्न
Agoraphobia?
उत्तर
Intense fear of situations where escape or help may feel difficult, such as crowds, transit, open spaces, or being outside alone.
कार्ड 648
प्रश्न
Best account of schizophrenia risk?
उत्तर
Biological vulnerability, including genetic and neural factors, interacts with prenatal and later environmental stressors.
कार्ड 649
प्रश्न
Eclectic approach to disorder?
उत्तर
Using ideas or treatments from more than one psychological perspective when evidence and client needs support them.
कार्ड 650
प्रश्न
Hallucination?
उत्तर
A sensory perception without a matching external stimulus.
कार्ड 651
प्रश्न
Panic disorder?
उत्तर
Recurrent unexpected panic attacks followed by continuing concern or behavior change related to more attacks.
कार्ड 652
प्रश्न
Best account of depressive-disorder causes?
उत्तर
Biological vulnerability can interact with learning, cognition, relationships, culture, and stressful events.
कार्ड 653
प्रश्न
Two people face the same stressor, but the person with greater underlying vulnerability develops symptoms. Which model fits?
उत्तर
The diathesis–stress model.
कार्ड 654
प्रश्न
Cluster A personality disorders?
उत्तर
The odd or eccentric cluster: paranoid, schizoid, and schizotypal personality disorders.
कार्ड 655
प्रश्न
What do psychotherapy meta-analyses generally find?
उत्तर
Psychotherapy is effective on average, while outcomes vary by problem, method, therapist, and client.
कार्ड 656
प्रश्न
Evidence-based treatment?
उत्तर
Using the best research evidence together with clinical expertise and the client's needs, culture, and preferences.
कार्ड 657
प्रश्न
Therapeutic alliance?
उत्तर
A collaborative, trusting relationship in which client and therapist agree on goals and work.
कार्ड 658
प्रश्न
Cultural humility in therapy?
उत्तर
Ongoing self-reflection, respect, and willingness to learn from the client's cultural experience.
कार्ड 659
प्रश्न
Deinstitutionalization?
उत्तर
Moving many people from long-term psychiatric hospitals toward community-based care, aided partly by medication.
कार्ड 660
प्रश्न
A client safely approaches a feared situation in planned steps instead of avoiding it. Which treatment method is this?
उत्तर
Exposure therapy.
कार्ड 661
प्रश्न
Nonmaleficence in therapy?
उत्तर
Avoiding or minimizing harm.
कार्ड 662
प्रश्न
Four medication categories in the course?
उत्तर
Antidepressants, antianxiety drugs, lithium, and antipsychotic medications.
कार्ड 663
प्रश्न
Depressive cognitive triad?
उत्तर
Negative views of oneself, the world, and the future.
कार्ड 664
प्रश्न
Applied behavior analysis?
उत्तर
Using measured learning principles to change socially significant behavior.
कार्ड 665
प्रश्न
Psychosurgery?
उत्तर
Rare invasive treatment that alters brain tissue; modern use is tightly limited because effects can be irreversible.
कार्ड 666
प्रश्न
Free association?
उत्तर
A psychodynamic technique in which a client says whatever comes to mind to explore unconscious themes.
कार्ड 667
प्रश्न
A client examines evidence for an automatic thought and develops a more accurate alternative. Which technique is this?
उत्तर
Cognitive restructuring.
कार्ड 668
प्रश्न
One advantage of group therapy?
उत्तर
Members can receive support, feedback, and practice with others while learning they aren't alone.
कार्ड 669
प्रश्न
Lobotomy?
उत्तर
An obsolete form of psychosurgery that cut frontal-lobe connections and often caused severe, irreversible harm.
कार्ड 670
प्रश्न
Best account of bipolar-disorder causes?
उत्तर
Biological and genetic influences are important, while stress and social context can affect episodes.
कार्ड 671
प्रश्न
Cognitive-behavioral therapy?
उत्तर
Treatment that changes maladaptive thinking and behavior together.
कार्ड 672
प्रश्न
Disorganized speech in schizophrenia?
उत्तर
Speech becomes difficult to follow because ideas or words are connected in disordered ways.
कार्ड 673
प्रश्न
Social anxiety disorder?
उत्तर
Intense fear of scrutiny or negative evaluation in social situations.
कार्ड 674
प्रश्न
Best account of obsessive-compulsive-disorder causes?
उत्तर
Biological factors and learned relief from compulsions can combine with maladaptive beliefs.
कार्ड 675
प्रश्न
Rational-emotive behavior therapy?
उत्तर
A cognitive-behavioral approach that challenges rigid, irrational beliefs and builds more workable alternatives.
कार्ड 676
प्रश्न
Dissociative fugue?
उत्तर
Dissociative amnesia accompanied by unexpected travel or confusion about identity.
कार्ड 677
प्रश्न
Cluster B personality disorders?
उत्तर
The dramatic, emotional, or erratic cluster: antisocial, borderline, histrionic, and narcissistic personality disorders.
कार्ड 678
प्रश्न
Best account of anxiety-disorder causes?
उत्तर
Biological vulnerability, learned fear, avoidance, and maladaptive interpretation can interact.
कार्ड 679
प्रश्न
Catatonia?
उत्तर
Markedly disordered movement, which can include unusual excitement or profound lack of movement.
कार्ड 680
प्रश्न
Manic episode?
उत्तर
A distinct period of unusually elevated or irritable mood and increased energy severe enough to cause major impairment or require hospitalization.
कार्ड 681
प्रश्न
Dissociative identity disorder?
उत्तर
Disruption of identity involving distinct personality states and gaps in autobiographical memory.
कार्ड 682
प्रश्न
Best account of feeding and eating disorder causes?
उत्तर
Biological, cognitive, behavioral, family, social, and cultural factors can interact.
कार्ड 683
प्रश्न
Cluster C personality disorders?
उत्तर
The anxious or fearful cluster: avoidant, dependent, and obsessive-compulsive personality disorders.
कार्ड 684
प्रश्न
Taijin kyofusho?
उत्तर
A culture-related syndrome described in Japan involving intense fear that one's appearance, gaze, odor, or behavior will offend or embarrass other people.
कार्ड 685
प्रश्न
Negative symptom of schizophrenia?
उत्तर
A reduction in a typical function, such as emotional expression, speech, motivation, or movement.
कार्ड 686
प्रश्न
What experiences are often linked with dissociative disorders?
उत्तर
Severe trauma or stress, though diagnosis requires careful assessment and isn't inferred from trauma alone.
कार्ड 687
प्रश्न
Hypomanic episode?
उत्तर
A noticeable period of elevated or irritable mood and increased energy that is less severe and impairing than mania.
कार्ड 688
प्रश्न
Generalized anxiety disorder?
उत्तर
Persistent, hard-to-control anxiety and worry across several areas of life.
कार्ड 689
प्रश्न
Hoarding disorder?
उत्तर
Persistent difficulty discarding possessions, producing clutter that impairs the use of living spaces.
कार्ड 690
प्रश्न
Best account of personality-disorder causes?
उत्तर
Biological dispositions and long-term social, cultural, learning, and cognitive influences can interact.
कार्ड 691
प्रश्न
Why can't one symptom establish a disorder?
उत्तर
Diagnosis depends on a broader pattern, duration, distress or impairment, context, and alternative explanations.
कार्ड 692
प्रश्न
Persistent depressive disorder?
उत्तर
A chronic depressed mood with related symptoms lasting at least two years in adults or one year in children and adolescents.
कार्ड 693
प्रश्न
Fidelity in therapy ethics?
उत्तर
Maintaining trust, responsibility, and professional commitments.
कार्ड 694
प्रश्न
Systematic desensitization?
उत्तर
Gradual exposure to a fear hierarchy while practicing relaxation or another incompatible response.
कार्ड 695
प्रश्न
Dream interpretation in psychodynamic therapy?
उत्तर
Exploring possible personal meanings and unconscious themes in dreams, not treating dreams as objective facts.
कार्ड 696
प्रश्न
Dialectical behavior therapy?
उत्तर
A cognitive-behavioral approach that builds mindfulness, emotion regulation, distress tolerance, and relationship skills.
कार्ड 697
प्रश्न
Integrity in therapy ethics?
उत्तर
Being honest and accurate in professional work.
कार्ड 698
प्रश्न
Aversion therapy?
उत्तर
Pairing an unwanted behavior with an unpleasant stimulus to reduce the behavior.
कार्ड 699
प्रश्न
Tardive dyskinesia?
उत्तर
A movement disorder that can occur as a serious side effect of long-term antipsychotic medication.
कार्ड 700
प्रश्न
ECT versus TMS?
उत्तर
ECT induces a controlled seizure under anesthesia; TMS uses magnetic pulses without surgery. Both can treat selected conditions.
कार्ड 701
प्रश्न
Respect for rights and dignity?
उत्तर
Protecting autonomy, privacy, confidentiality, and fair treatment.
कार्ड 702
प्रश्न
A clinic awards points for target behaviors, and clients exchange the points for privileges. Which method is this?
उत्तर
A token economy.
कार्ड 703
प्रश्न
A therapist emphasizes empathy, genuineness, active listening, and unconditional positive regard. Which approach is this?
उत्तर
Person-centered therapy.
कार्ड 704
प्रश्न
What can hypnosis treat, and what can't it reliably do?
उत्तर
It can help some pain and anxiety; it can't reliably recover accurate memories or produce true age regression.
कार्ड 705
प्रश्न
Medication and psychotherapy outperform either alone for some conditions. Best conclusion?
उत्तर
Combined treatment can be useful for some clients, but the best plan depends on the condition and individual evidence.

Workload	Errors
Low	2
High	8

Condition	Mean minutes
Assigned topic	34
Chosen topic	47

705 कार्ड