Nature in the nature–nurture question?

Inherited biological influences on behavior and mental processes.

Central nervous system?

The brain and spinal cord, which process information and coordinate responses.

Main role of the spinal cord?

It carries messages between brain and body and organizes some reflexes.

Scores are 4, 6, 8, 10. What is the mean?

7, found by dividing the total of 28 by 4 scores.

Nurture in the nature–nurture question?

Environmental influences, such as family, culture, education, and experience.

Peripheral nervous system?

The nerves that connect the central nervous system with the rest of the body.

A rapid neural pathway that can produce a response through the spinal cord before conscious brain processing.

Reflex times are 180, 190, 210, 260, 410 milliseconds. What is the median?

210 milliseconds, the middle score after ordering the five values.

The proportion of variation in a trait within a population that is associated with genetic differences. It doesn't describe one person's trait.

Autonomic nervous system?

The peripheral division that regulates involuntary functions of glands and internal organs.

Evolutionary perspective on behavior?

It asks how natural selection may have favored psychological traits that helped survival or reproduction.

Why is eugenics scientifically and ethically invalid?

It misuses heredity claims to rank people and justify coercion, while ignoring environmental influence, human rights, and the complexity of traits.

Why isn't behavior explained by genes or environment alone?

They interact. A biological tendency can be strengthened, weakened, or redirected by experience.

Researchers compare a trait across biological relatives who share different amounts of DNA. Which method is this?

A family study; twin comparisons are one example, but shared environments still limit causal conclusions.

Traits that support survival or reproduction can become more common across generations.

Somatic nervous system?

The peripheral division that carries sensory information and controls voluntary skeletal-muscle movement.

They carry incoming information from sensory receptors toward the central nervous system.

Which design compares adoptees with both biological and adoptive relatives?

An adoption study, used to separate some hereditary and environmental similarities.

Twins show a strong trait correlation. What keeps this result from proving genetic causation?

Correlation doesn't isolate genes from shared environments or other confounding variables.

Sympathetic nervous system?

The autonomic division that mobilizes energy during challenge or threat.

Evidence shows a genetic risk predicts an outcome only under chronic stress. Best claim?

The outcome reflects a gene–environment interaction, not a purely genetic effect.

They carry outgoing commands from the central nervous system to muscles or glands.

Sleep duration and stress are correlated. What directionality problem limits a causal conclusion?

The result cannot show whether less sleep raises stress, stress reduces sleep, or both directions operate.

Parasympathetic nervous system?

The autonomic division that calms the body and supports rest, digestion, and recovery.

The neuron's stable negative charge when it isn't firing, maintained by unequal ion concentrations across the membrane.

Neurons within the central nervous system that process information and connect other neurons.

Adrenaline's behavioral role?

It helps mobilize the body during arousal and the fight-or-flight response.

Planning, judgment, impulse control, working memory, voluntary movement, and aspects of speech.

The minimum stimulation needed to trigger an action potential.

The large fiber tract that carries information between the cerebral hemispheres.

Leptin's role in eating?

It signals stored energy and helps reduce hunger.

Auditory processing, language comprehension, memory, and object recognition.

Depolarization during an action potential?

Positive ions enter the neuron, making the membrane charge less negative and then briefly positive.

Dopamine's major psychological functions?

Movement, motivation, reward learning, attention, and reinforcement.

A substance that increases a neurotransmitter's effect by activating its receptor or supporting its action.

A brief electrical impulse that travels along a neuron after threshold is reached.

The sending neuron reabsorbs neurotransmitter from the synapse after release.

Serotonin's major psychological functions?

Mood, sleep, appetite, and arousal regulation.

Glutamate's major psychological functions?

It is the brain's main excitatory neurotransmitter and supports learning and memory.

A short recovery interval after firing when the neuron resets and can't immediately produce another full action potential.

It helps regulate circadian timing and promotes sleepiness in darkness.

A substance that blocks or reduces a neurotransmitter's effect at its receptor.

Psychoactive drugs that increase central nervous system activity and alertness.

A reduced response after repeated use, so a larger dose may be needed for the same effect.

All-or-none principle?

A neuron fires a full action potential once threshold is reached; stronger input changes firing rate, not impulse size.

Norepinephrine's major psychological functions?

Alertness, arousal, attention, and the stress response.

GABA's major psychological function?

It is the brain's main inhibitory neurotransmitter and reduces neural activity.

Oxytocin's behavioral role?

It supports social bonding and also contributes to childbirth and lactation.

A drug that keeps more neurotransmitter in the synapse by slowing reabsorption.

Flashcards Open Source App — Five-Unit Psychology Course Review

Review five units of psychology through concept recall, real-world applications, research methods, data analysis, and evidence-based reasoning.

من إعداد Flashcards Open Source App

حول هذه الرزمة

Review a five-unit psychology course with 705 independently written cards, ready to install and study offline. The deck covers biological bases of behavior, cognition, development and learning, social psychology and personality, and mental and physical health. It supports four science practices through concept application, research methods and design, data interpretation, and argumentation.

What this deck practices

Concept → meaning or function: recall a concise definition, mechanism, or distinction.
Scenario → concept: identify the idea that best explains a behavior, symptom pattern, or result.
Study description → method: identify a design, variable, sampling decision, ethical safeguard, limitation, or warranted conclusion.
Data representation → interpretation: read a compact table, distribution, graph pattern, statistic, or calculation and decide what the evidence shows.
Claim + evidence → reasoning: connect evidence to a defensible psychological explanation.

The sequence follows Units 1–5, stays within the current or next topic, and puts prerequisites and chronological steps first. Manually identified definition/application, foundation/claim, scenario, cue, and near-duplicate variants are assigned semantic families. At least three cards unrelated to either variant separate consecutive members of each family. Explicit prerequisite and chronological sequences stay together only when adjacency makes the progression easier to learn.

What's deliberately left out

The deck doesn't mechanically reverse every definition, diagnose personal anecdotes, offer treatment advice, or include long essay prompts. It stays within the reviewed five-unit course boundary and leaves out detailed genetics, neuron labeling, out-of-scope theories, unlisted disorders, names-and-dates trivia, and exhaustive study permutations.

Content and scope were reviewed on 2026-08-25.

The psychological facts and course outline aren't claimed as original. The CC0 label applies only to the independently written prompts, answers, organization, metadata, and ordering, to the extent those rights exist. No examination questions, scoring materials, curriculum text, source prose, logos, or third-party media were copied.

This independent, unofficial study deck is not affiliated with or endorsed by College Board.

بطاقات هذه الرزمة

البطاقة ١
السؤال
Nature in the nature–nurture question?
الإجابة
Inherited biological influences on behavior and mental processes.
البطاقة ٢
السؤال
Central nervous system?
الإجابة
The brain and spinal cord, which process information and coordinate responses.
البطاقة ٣
السؤال
Main role of the spinal cord?
الإجابة
It carries messages between brain and body and organizes some reflexes.
البطاقة ٤
السؤال
Scores are 4, 6, 8, 10. What is the mean?
الإجابة
7, found by dividing the total of 28 by 4 scores.
البطاقة ٥
السؤال
Nurture in the nature–nurture question?
الإجابة
Environmental influences, such as family, culture, education, and experience.
البطاقة ٦
السؤال
Peripheral nervous system?
الإجابة
The nerves that connect the central nervous system with the rest of the body.
البطاقة ٧
السؤال
Reflex arc?
الإجابة
A rapid neural pathway that can produce a response through the spinal cord before conscious brain processing.
البطاقة ٨
السؤال
Reflex times are 180, 190, 210, 260, 410 milliseconds. What is the median?
الإجابة
210 milliseconds, the middle score after ordering the five values.
البطاقة ٩
السؤال
Heritability?
الإجابة
The proportion of variation in a trait within a population that is associated with genetic differences. It doesn't describe one person's trait.
البطاقة ١٠
السؤال
Autonomic nervous system?
الإجابة
The peripheral division that regulates involuntary functions of glands and internal organs.
البطاقة ١١
السؤال
Evolutionary perspective on behavior?
الإجابة
It asks how natural selection may have favored psychological traits that helped survival or reproduction.
البطاقة ١٢
السؤال
Why is eugenics scientifically and ethically invalid?
الإجابة
It misuses heredity claims to rank people and justify coercion, while ignoring environmental influence, human rights, and the complexity of traits.
البطاقة ١٣
السؤال
Why isn't behavior explained by genes or environment alone?
الإجابة
They interact. A biological tendency can be strengthened, weakened, or redirected by experience.
البطاقة ١٤
السؤال
Researchers compare a trait across biological relatives who share different amounts of DNA. Which method is this?
الإجابة
A family study; twin comparisons are one example, but shared environments still limit causal conclusions.
البطاقة ١٥
السؤال
Natural selection?
الإجابة
Traits that support survival or reproduction can become more common across generations.
البطاقة ١٦
السؤال
Somatic nervous system?
الإجابة
The peripheral division that carries sensory information and controls voluntary skeletal-muscle movement.
البطاقة ١٧
السؤال
Sensory neurons?
الإجابة
They carry incoming information from sensory receptors toward the central nervous system.
البطاقة ١٨
السؤال
Which design compares adoptees with both biological and adoptive relatives?
الإجابة
An adoption study, used to separate some hereditary and environmental similarities.
البطاقة ١٩
السؤال
Twins show a strong trait correlation. What keeps this result from proving genetic causation?
الإجابة
Correlation doesn't isolate genes from shared environments or other confounding variables.
البطاقة ٢٠
السؤال
Sympathetic nervous system?
الإجابة
The autonomic division that mobilizes energy during challenge or threat.
البطاقة ٢١
السؤال
Evidence shows a genetic risk predicts an outcome only under chronic stress. Best claim?
الإجابة
The outcome reflects a gene–environment interaction, not a purely genetic effect.
البطاقة ٢٢
السؤال
Motor neurons?
الإجابة
They carry outgoing commands from the central nervous system to muscles or glands.
البطاقة ٢٣
السؤال
Sleep duration and stress are correlated. What directionality problem limits a causal conclusion?
الإجابة
The result cannot show whether less sleep raises stress, stress reduces sleep, or both directions operate.
البطاقة ٢٤
السؤال
Parasympathetic nervous system?
الإجابة
The autonomic division that calms the body and supports rest, digestion, and recovery.
البطاقة ٢٥
السؤال
Resting potential?
الإجابة
The neuron's stable negative charge when it isn't firing, maintained by unequal ion concentrations across the membrane.
البطاقة ٢٦
السؤال
Interneurons?
الإجابة
Neurons within the central nervous system that process information and connect other neurons.
البطاقة ٢٧
السؤال
Adrenaline's behavioral role?
الإجابة
It helps mobilize the body during arousal and the fight-or-flight response.
البطاقة ٢٨
السؤال
Frontal lobes?
الإجابة
Planning, judgment, impulse control, working memory, voluntary movement, and aspects of speech.
البطاقة ٢٩
السؤال
Neural threshold?
الإجابة
The minimum stimulation needed to trigger an action potential.
البطاقة ٣٠
السؤال
Corpus callosum?
الإجابة
The large fiber tract that carries information between the cerebral hemispheres.
البطاقة ٣١
السؤال
Leptin's role in eating?
الإجابة
It signals stored energy and helps reduce hunger.
البطاقة ٣٢
السؤال
Temporal lobes?
الإجابة
Auditory processing, language comprehension, memory, and object recognition.
البطاقة ٣٣
السؤال
Depolarization during an action potential?
الإجابة
Positive ions enter the neuron, making the membrane charge less negative and then briefly positive.
البطاقة ٣٤
السؤال
Dopamine's major psychological functions?
الإجابة
Movement, motivation, reward learning, attention, and reinforcement.
البطاقة ٣٥
السؤال
Ghrelin's role in eating?
الإجابة
It helps stimulate hunger.
البطاقة ٣٦
السؤال
Drug agonist?
الإجابة
A substance that increases a neurotransmitter's effect by activating its receptor or supporting its action.
البطاقة ٣٧
السؤال
Action potential?
الإجابة
A brief electrical impulse that travels along a neuron after threshold is reached.
البطاقة ٣٨
السؤال
Reuptake?
الإجابة
The sending neuron reabsorbs neurotransmitter from the synapse after release.
البطاقة ٣٩
السؤال
Serotonin's major psychological functions?
الإجابة
Mood, sleep, appetite, and arousal regulation.
البطاقة ٤٠
السؤال
Glutamate's major psychological functions?
الإجابة
It is the brain's main excitatory neurotransmitter and supports learning and memory.
البطاقة ٤١
السؤال
Refractory period?
الإجابة
A short recovery interval after firing when the neuron resets and can't immediately produce another full action potential.
البطاقة ٤٢
السؤال
Melatonin's role?
الإجابة
It helps regulate circadian timing and promotes sleepiness in darkness.
البطاقة ٤٣
السؤال
Drug antagonist?
الإجابة
A substance that blocks or reduces a neurotransmitter's effect at its receptor.
البطاقة ٤٤
السؤال
Stimulants?
الإجابة
Psychoactive drugs that increase central nervous system activity and alertness.
البطاقة ٤٥
السؤال
Drug tolerance?
الإجابة
A reduced response after repeated use, so a larger dose may be needed for the same effect.
البطاقة ٤٦
السؤال
Damage to myelin slows messages in the central nervous system. Which disorder illustrates this problem?
الإجابة
Multiple sclerosis.
البطاقة ٤٧
السؤال
All-or-none principle?
الإجابة
A neuron fires a full action potential once threshold is reached; stronger input changes firing rate, not impulse size.
البطاقة ٤٨
السؤال
Norepinephrine's major psychological functions?
الإجابة
Alertness, arousal, attention, and the stress response.
البطاقة ٤٩
السؤال
GABA's major psychological function?
الإجابة
It is the brain's main inhibitory neurotransmitter and reduces neural activity.
البطاقة ٥٠
السؤال
Oxytocin's behavioral role?
الإجابة
It supports social bonding and also contributes to childbirth and lactation.
البطاقة ٥١
السؤال
Reuptake inhibitor?
الإجابة
A drug that keeps more neurotransmitter in the synapse by slowing reabsorption.
البطاقة ٥٢
السؤال
Depressants?
الإجابة
Psychoactive drugs that reduce central nervous system activity.
البطاقة ٥٣
السؤال
Drug withdrawal?
الإجابة
Physical or psychological symptoms that can appear when regular drug use is reduced or stopped.
البطاقة ٥٤
السؤال
Antibodies disrupt acetylcholine receptors at muscles, causing weakness. Which disorder illustrates this problem?
الإجابة
Myasthenia gravis.
البطاقة ٥٥
السؤال
Glial cells?
الإجابة
Cells that support, nourish, insulate, protect, and help regulate neurons and their connections.
البطاقة ٥٦
السؤال
Endorphins?
الإجابة
Natural neurotransmitters that reduce pain and can produce pleasure.
البطاقة ٥٧
السؤال
Substance P?
الإجابة
A neurotransmitter involved in pain signaling.
البطاقة ٥٨
السؤال
Acetylcholine's major functions?
الإجابة
Muscle action, learning, memory, and attention.
البطاقة ٥٩
السؤال
Opioids?
الإجابة
Drugs that bind to opioid receptors, reducing pain and often producing relaxation or euphoria.
البطاقة ٦٠
السؤال
Hallucinogens?
الإجابة
Drugs that alter perception and can produce sensory experiences without matching external input.
البطاقة ٦١
السؤال
Addiction?
الإجابة
Compulsive substance use or behavior that continues despite harmful consequences and is difficult to control.
البطاقة ٦٢
السؤال
Parietal lobes?
الإجابة
Body-sense processing, spatial attention, and integrating sensory information.
البطاقة ٦٣
السؤال
Consciousness?
الإجابة
Awareness of internal experiences and the surrounding environment.
البطاقة ٦٤
السؤال
Circadian rhythm?
الإجابة
A roughly 24-hour biological cycle that helps regulate sleep and wakefulness.
البطاقة ٦٥
السؤال
Damage causes slow, effortful speech with relatively preserved comprehension. Likely region?
الإجابة
Broca's area, usually in the left frontal lobe.
البطاقة ٦٦
السؤال
Occipital lobes?
الإجابة
Primary cortical processing of visual information.
البطاقة ٦٧
السؤال
What does split-brain research reveal?
الإجابة
When the corpus callosum is severed, the hemispheres can process some information independently.
البطاقة ٦٨
السؤال
How does the suprachiasmatic nucleus regulate circadian rhythm?
الإجابة
It uses light information from the eyes to coordinate the body's roughly 24-hour clock.
البطاقة ٦٩
السؤال
NREM-1 sleep?
الإجابة
The light transition into sleep, sometimes accompanied by hypnagogic sensations.
البطاقة ٧٠
السؤال
Motor cortex?
الإجابة
A frontal-lobe strip that directs voluntary movement.
البطاقة ٧١
السؤال
Damage causes fluent but nonsensical speech and poor comprehension. Likely region?
الإجابة
Wernicke's area, usually in the left temporal lobe.
البطاقة ٧٢
السؤال
Brainstem's core function?
الإجابة
It supports basic survival functions and connects the brain with the spinal cord.
البطاقة ٧٣
السؤال
NREM-2 sleep?
الإجابة
A light sleep stage marked by sleep spindles and K-complexes.
البطاقة ٧٤
السؤال
Somatosensory cortex?
الإجابة
A parietal-lobe strip that registers touch and body-position information.
البطاقة ٧٥
السؤال
Medulla's main functions?
الإجابة
It regulates vital automatic functions such as breathing and heart rate.
البطاقة ٧٦
السؤال
Reticular activating system?
الإجابة
A brainstem network involved in alertness, arousal, and the sleep–wake cycle.
البطاقة ٧٧
السؤال
NREM-3 sleep?
الإجابة
Deep slow-wave sleep, associated with physical restoration and difficult awakening.
البطاقة ٧٨
السؤال
Cerebellum's main functions?
الإجابة
Balance, coordinated movement, procedural learning, and timing.
البطاقة ٧٩
السؤال
Thalamus?
الإجابة
A relay that directs most sensory information to the cerebral cortex and helps regulate alertness.
البطاقة ٨٠
السؤال
Hypothalamus?
الإجابة
It helps regulate homeostasis, hunger, thirst, temperature, sexual behavior, and endocrine activity.
البطاقة ٨١
السؤال
REM sleep?
الإجابة
A stage with vivid dreaming, rapid eye movements, active brain patterns, and skeletal-muscle paralysis.
البطاقة ٨٢
السؤال
Why is the pituitary called a master gland?
الإجابة
Its hormones influence other endocrine glands, under the hypothalamus's control.
البطاقة ٨٣
السؤال
Amygdala?
الإجابة
A limbic structure involved in processing emotion, threat, and emotional learning.
البطاقة ٨٤
السؤال
Hippocampus?
الإجابة
A limbic structure essential for forming new explicit memories and spatial memory.
البطاقة ٨٥
السؤال
How does sleep change across a typical night?
الإجابة
NREM and REM repeat in cycles; REM periods generally lengthen toward morning.
البطاقة ٨٦
السؤال
Contralateral brain control?
الإجابة
Each cerebral hemisphere mainly receives sensory input from and controls movement on the opposite side of the body.
البطاقة ٨٧
السؤال
What does an EEG measure?
الإجابة
Electrical activity recorded from the scalp, with strong timing information but limited spatial precision.
البطاقة ٨٨
السؤال
Reward-center activity?
الإجابة
Activity in neural reward pathways can reinforce behaviors that predict desirable outcomes.
البطاقة ٨٩
السؤال
Neuroplasticity?
الإجابة
The nervous system's ability to change its organization or function through experience, learning, or injury.
البطاقة ٩٠
السؤال
Which method shows brain activity changing during a task?
الإجابة
A functional brain-imaging method, such as fMRI or PET, rather than a structural scan alone.
البطاقة ٩١
السؤال
A patient loses a function after damage to one brain region. What is the cautious conclusion?
الإجابة
The region contributes to the function, but the behavior may depend on a wider network.
البطاقة ٩٢
السؤال
Insomnia?
الإجابة
Persistent difficulty falling asleep, staying asleep, or obtaining restorative sleep.
البطاقة ٩٣
السؤال
How do wavelength and amplitude shape sound?
الإجابة
Wavelength relates to frequency and perceived pitch; amplitude relates to intensity and perceived loudness.
البطاقة ٩٤
السؤال
Absolute threshold?
الإجابة
The minimum stimulation detected 50% of the time.
البطاقة ٩٥
السؤال
Activation-synthesis view of dreams?
الإجابة
The brain builds a story while interpreting internally generated neural activity during sleep.
البطاقة ٩٦
السؤال
Narcolepsy?
الإجابة
A disorder involving sudden sleep attacks and abnormal entry into REM sleep.
البطاقة ٩٧
السؤال
Why can jet lag disrupt sleep?
الإجابة
The internal circadian clock is temporarily out of sync with the new light–dark schedule.
البطاقة ٩٨
السؤال
Difference threshold?
الإجابة
The smallest change between stimuli detected 50% of the time.
البطاقة ٩٩
السؤال
Consolidation view of dreams?
الإجابة
Dreaming may reflect the brain organizing and integrating recent memories.
البطاقة ١٠٠
السؤال
REM sleep behavior disorder?
الإجابة
Loss of normal REM muscle paralysis, allowing a person to act out dreams.
البطاقة ١٠١
السؤال
Why can rotating shift work impair sleep?
الإجابة
Frequent schedule changes force the circadian system to keep readjusting.
البطاقة ١٠٢
السؤال
Weber's law?
الإجابة
The noticeable difference between two stimuli is a constant proportion of the original intensity.
البطاقة ١٠٣
السؤال
Two supported functions of sleep?
الإجابة
Memory consolidation and restoration of resources used during waking activity.
البطاقة ١٠٤
السؤال
Sleep apnea?
الإجابة
Repeated breathing interruptions during sleep that fragment sleep and reduce oxygen.
البطاقة ١٠٥
السؤال
REM rebound?
الإجابة
A temporary increase in REM sleep after a period of REM deprivation.
البطاقة ١٠٦
السؤال
Signal detection theory?
الإجابة
Detection depends on stimulus strength plus expectations, experience, motivation, and alertness.
البطاقة ١٠٧
السؤال
Sensory transduction?
الإجابة
Sensory receptors convert physical energy into neural signals.
البطاقة ١٠٨
السؤال
Vestibular sense?
الإجابة
The sense of balance and head movement, supported by structures in the inner ear.
البطاقة ١٠٩
السؤال
Somnambulism?
الإجابة
Sleepwalking, which most often occurs during deep NREM sleep.
البطاقة ١١٠
السؤال
Why is there a blind spot in each eye?
الإجابة
The optic nerve leaves the retina at a point with no rods or cones.
البطاقة ١١١
السؤال
What begins visual transduction?
الإجابة
Retinal receptors convert light into neural signals that travel toward the brain.
البطاقة ١١٢
السؤال
A sound reaches the left ear slightly earlier and louder than the right. Where will it seem to originate?
الإجابة
From the left, because the brain compares arrival-time and intensity differences between the ears.
البطاقة ١١٣
السؤال
Why are taste and smell called chemical senses?
الإجابة
Their receptors respond to molecules from food or the air.
البطاقة ١١٤
السؤال
Accommodation in vision?
الإجابة
The lens changes shape to focus near or distant objects on the retina.
البطاقة ١١٥
السؤال
Cones?
الإجابة
Retinal receptors that support color vision and fine detail in brighter light.
البطاقة ١١٦
السؤال
What begins auditory transduction?
الإجابة
Hair cells in the inner ear convert sound-driven vibration into neural signals.
البطاقة ١١٧
السؤال
How does trichromatic processing explain color vision?
الإجابة
Three cone types respond most strongly to different wavelength ranges, and their combined activity produces color experience.
البطاقة ١١٨
السؤال
How is smell unusual among the senses?
الإجابة
Olfactory signals reach cortical and limbic areas without first passing through the thalamic relay used by other senses.
البطاقة ١١٩
السؤال
Kinesthesia?
الإجابة
The sense of body-part position and movement, based on signals from muscles, tendons, and joints.
البطاقة ١٢٠
السؤال
Place coding versus frequency coding in hearing?
الإجابة
Place coding links pitch to where the cochlea responds most; frequency coding links pitch to neural firing rate.
البطاقة ١٢١
السؤال
Nearsightedness?
الإجابة
Nearby objects are clear, but distant images focus in front of the retina and look blurred.
البطاقة ١٢٢
السؤال
Pheromones?
الإجابة
Chemical signals released by one organism that can affect the behavior or physiology of others of the same species.
البطاقة ١٢٣
السؤال
Touch receptors for warmth and cold fire together strongly. What sensation can result?
الإجابة
A hot or burning sensation, showing that temperature experience combines receptor signals.
البطاقة ١٢٤
السؤال
Volley theory of pitch?
الإجابة
Groups of auditory neurons alternate firing so their combined rate can represent pitches too fast for one neuron alone.
البطاقة ١٢٥
السؤال
Farsightedness?
الإجابة
Distant vision is clearer, while nearby images tend to focus behind the retina and look blurred.
البطاقة ١٢٦
السؤال
Six taste qualities named in the course?
الإجابة
Sweet, sour, salty, bitter, umami, and oleogustus (fat taste).
البطاقة ١٢٧
السؤال
Phantom-limb sensation?
الإجابة
Feeling pain, touch, or movement in a limb that is no longer present because the nervous system still represents it.
البطاقة ١٢٨
السؤال
Sensory interaction?
الإجابة
One sense changes how another is experienced, as smell influences flavor.
البطاقة ١٢٩
السؤال
What causes most color-vision deficiency?
الإجابة
One or more cone types are missing or function differently, reducing discrimination among some colors.
البطاقة ١٣٠
السؤال
Prosopagnosia?
الإجابة
Difficulty recognizing familiar faces despite otherwise usable vision.
البطاقة ١٣١
السؤال
Rods?
الإجابة
Retinal receptors sensitive to dim light and peripheral movement, without color detail.
البطاقة ١٣٢
السؤال
How does opponent processing explain afterimages?
الإجابة
Color is coded in opposing pairs, so tiring one response can make its opponent briefly dominate.
البطاقة ١٣٣
السؤال
Conductive versus sensorineural hearing loss?
الإجابة
Conductive loss blocks sound transmission; sensorineural loss damages hair cells or auditory pathways.
البطاقة ١٣٤
السؤال
Nontasters, medium tasters, and supertasters?
الإجابة
Categories describing lower, typical, and unusually high sensitivity to taste, especially bitterness.
البطاقة ١٣٥
السؤال
What do the semicircular canals detect?
الإجابة
Rotational head movement, helping the vestibular system maintain balance.
البطاقة ١٣٦
السؤال
Synesthesia?
الإجابة
Stimulation of one sense consistently and automatically produces an additional sensory experience.
البطاقة ١٣٧
السؤال
Dichromatism versus monochromatism?
الإجابة
Dichromatism uses two functioning cone systems; monochromatism uses one or none, producing far less color discrimination.
البطاقة ١٣٨
السؤال
Blindsight?
الإجابة
Responding to visual information without consciously seeing it, usually after damage to primary visual cortex.
البطاقة ١٣٩
السؤال
Sensory adaptation?
الإجابة
Reduced sensitivity after constant, unchanging stimulation.
البطاقة ١٤٠
السؤال
Gate-control view of pain?
الإجابة
Spinal and brain processes can amplify or reduce pain signals before conscious experience.
البطاقة ١٤١
السؤال
Bottom-up processing?
الإجابة
Building a perception from incoming sensory details.
البطاقة ١٤٢
السؤال
Concept?
الإجابة
A mental category used to group similar objects, events, ideas, or people.
البطاقة ١٤٣
السؤال
Fixation in problem solving?
الإجابة
Getting stuck on one way of representing or solving a problem.
البطاقة ١٤٤
السؤال
Algorithm?
الإجابة
A step-by-step method that guarantees a solution when followed correctly, though it may be slow.
البطاقة ١٤٥
السؤال
Top-down processing?
الإجابة
Using expectations, context, and prior knowledge to interpret sensory input.
البطاقة ١٤٦
السؤال
Confirmation bias?
الإجابة
Seeking or interpreting evidence in ways that support an existing belief.
البطاقة ١٤٧
السؤال
Retinal disparity?
الإجابة
The difference between each eye's image; greater disparity usually signals a nearer object.
البطاقة ١٤٨
السؤال
Heuristic?
الإجابة
A quick rule of thumb that saves effort but can produce errors.
البطاقة ١٤٩
السؤال
Selective attention?
الإجابة
Focusing conscious awareness on one part of the available sensory input.
البطاقة ١٥٠
السؤال
Figure–ground organization?
الإجابة
Separating the object of attention from its background.
البطاقة ١٥١
السؤال
Convergence as a depth cue?
الإجابة
The inward turning of the eyes increases as an object gets closer.
البطاقة ١٥٢
السؤال
Representativeness heuristic?
الإجابة
Judging category membership by resemblance to a prototype while neglecting other information.
البطاقة ١٥٣
السؤال
Missing a visible event while attention is elsewhere?
الإجابة
Inattentional blindness.
البطاقة ١٥٤
السؤال
Gestalt proximity principle?
الإجابة
Elements close together tend to be perceived as a group.
البطاقة ١٥٥
السؤال
Two familiar objects cast different-sized retinal images. Which looks farther away?
الإجابة
The one with the smaller retinal image, using the monocular cue of relative size.
البطاقة ١٥٦
السؤال
Cocktail-party effect?
الإجابة
The ability to focus on one conversation while still noticing personally important information in the background.
البطاقة ١٥٧
السؤال
Failing to notice an obvious change in a scene?
الإجابة
Change blindness.
البطاقة ١٥٨
السؤال
Gestalt similarity principle?
الإجابة
Elements that look alike tend to be grouped together.
البطاقة ١٥٩
السؤال
Parallel lines seem to meet in the distance. Which depth cue?
الإجابة
Linear perspective.
البطاقة ١٦٠
السؤال
Perceptual constancy?
الإجابة
Seeing an object's size, shape, or color as stable despite changing sensory images.
البطاقة ١٦١
السؤال
Perceptual set?
الإجابة
A readiness to perceive something in a particular way because of expectations or context.
البطاقة ١٦٢
السؤال
Gestalt closure principle?
الإجابة
The mind fills gaps to perceive a complete object.
البطاقة ١٦٣
السؤال
One object blocks part of another. Which seems closer?
الإجابة
The blocking object, using interposition.
البطاقة ١٦٤
السؤال
Apparent motion?
الإجابة
The perception of movement created by rapidly presented stationary images or lights.
البطاقة ١٦٥
السؤال
Availability heuristic?
الإجابة
Judging likelihood by how easily examples come to mind.
البطاقة ١٦٦
السؤال
Divergent thinking?
الإجابة
Generating many varied, original possibilities.
البطاقة ١٦٧
السؤال
A hazy object appears farther away than a sharp object. Which depth cue?
الإجابة
Relative clarity.
البطاقة ١٦٨
السؤال
Prototype?
الإجابة
A mental image of the most typical example of a category.
البطاقة ١٦٩
السؤال
Ignoring how common an event is while focusing on a vivid description?
الإجابة
Base-rate neglect, often tied to the representativeness heuristic.
البطاقة ١٧٠
السؤال
Convergent thinking?
الإجابة
Narrowing possibilities to the single best answer.
البطاقة ١٧١
السؤال
A textured surface looks denser and finer with distance. Which depth cue?
الإجابة
Texture gradient.
البطاقة ١٧٢
السؤال
Belief perseverance?
الإجابة
Holding a belief even after the evidence that created it has been discredited.
البطاقة ١٧٣
السؤال
Explicit memory?
الإجابة
Conscious memory for facts and experiences.
البطاقة ١٧٤
السؤال
Three stores in the multi-store model?
الإجابة
Sensory memory, short-term memory, and long-term memory.
البطاقة ١٧٥
السؤال
Seeing an object only in its usual role?
الإجابة
Functional fixedness.
البطاقة ١٧٦
السؤال
Mental set?
الإجابة
Using a familiar solution strategy even when a different approach would work better.
البطاقة ١٧٧
السؤال
Episodic memory?
الإجابة
Explicit memory for personally experienced events.
البطاقة ١٧٨
السؤال
Working memory?
الإجابة
A limited-capacity system that briefly holds and actively manipulates information.
البطاقة ١٧٩
السؤال
Insight?
الإجابة
A sudden realization of a problem's solution.
البطاقة ١٨٠
السؤال
Framing effect?
الإجابة
Choices change when the same information is worded or presented differently.
البطاقة ١٨١
السؤال
Implicit memory?
الإجابة
Learning that affects behavior without deliberate conscious recall.
البطاقة ١٨٢
السؤال
Overconfidence bias?
الإجابة
Being more certain about one's judgments than accuracy warrants.
البطاقة ١٨٣
السؤال
Anchoring bias?
الإجابة
Relying too heavily on the first number or idea encountered.
البطاقة ١٨٤
السؤال
Schema in thinking?
الإجابة
A mental framework that organizes knowledge and guides interpretation.
البطاقة ١٨٥
السؤال
Procedural memory?
الإجابة
Implicit memory for skills and habits.
البطاقة ١٨٦
السؤال
Gambler's fallacy?
الإجابة
The mistaken belief that a random outcome becomes due after a streak, even when trials are independent.
البطاقة ١٨٧
السؤال
Sunk-cost fallacy?
الإجابة
Continuing because of past investment even when future costs outweigh future benefits.
البطاقة ١٨٨
السؤال
Executive functions?
الإجابة
Mental processes that support planning, inhibition, flexible switching, and goal-directed control.
البطاقة ١٨٩
السؤال
How can priming affect judgment?
الإجابة
Recent exposure can make related ideas more accessible and subtly shape a later response.
البطاقة ١٩٠
السؤال
Central executive in working memory?
الإجابة
The attention-control component that coordinates verbal and visual-spatial processing.
البطاقة ١٩١
السؤال
Serial-position effect?
الإجابة
People tend to recall the first and last items in a list better than the middle.
البطاقة ١٩٢
السؤال
Semantic memory?
الإجابة
Explicit memory for facts, meanings, and general knowledge.
البطاقة ١٩٣
السؤال
Levels-of-processing principle?
الإجابة
Deeper semantic processing usually produces stronger memory than shallow structural or sound-based processing.
البطاقة ١٩٤
السؤال
Automatic processing?
الإجابة
Encoding information with little conscious effort, such as space, time, or well-practiced meanings.
البطاقة ١٩٥
السؤال
Maintenance rehearsal?
الإجابة
Repeating information to keep it active, usually without adding much meaning.
البطاقة ١٩٦
السؤال
Prospective memory?
الإجابة
Remembering to carry out an intended action in the future.
البطاقة ١٩٧
السؤال
Primacy effect?
الإجابة
Better memory for early list items, often because they receive more rehearsal.
البطاقة ١٩٨
السؤال
Long-term memory?
الإجابة
A relatively durable, large-capacity store of knowledge, experiences, and skills.
البطاقة ١٩٩
السؤال
Highly superior autobiographical memory?
الإجابة
An unusual ability to recall extensive personal events and dates with exceptional accuracy.
البطاقة ٢٠٠
السؤال
Effortful processing?
الإجابة
Encoding that requires attention and deliberate work.
البطاقة ٢٠١
السؤال
Elaborative rehearsal?
الإجابة
Linking new information to meaning, examples, or existing knowledge.
البطاقة ٢٠٢
السؤال
Memory consolidation?
الإجابة
The process that stabilizes a memory after learning.
البطاقة ٢٠٣
السؤال
Recency effect?
الإجابة
Better immediate memory for the last list items because they remain active.
البطاقة ٢٠٤
السؤال
Spacing effect?
الإجابة
Learning lasts longer when study is distributed over time rather than massed into one session.
البطاقة ٢٠٥
السؤال
Testing effect?
الإجابة
Actively retrieving information improves later memory more than rereading alone.
البطاقة ٢٠٦
السؤال
Chunking?
الإجابة
Organizing separate pieces of information into meaningful units.
البطاقة ٢٠٧
السؤال
Mnemonic?
الإجابة
A structured memory aid that links material to an image, phrase, location, or pattern.
البطاقة ٢٠٨
السؤال
Why organize material into a hierarchy?
الإجابة
Grouping broad ideas above narrower details makes relationships easier to encode and retrieve.
البطاقة ٢٠٩
السؤال
How can a schema help encoding?
الإجابة
It supplies an existing framework that organizes and connects new information.
البطاقة ٢١٠
السؤال
Students reread or practice retrieval, then take the same delayed test. What are the independent and dependent variables?
الإجابة
The study method is independent; delayed-test performance is dependent.
البطاقة ٢١١
السؤال
Iconic memory?
الإجابة
A very brief visual sensory memory.
البطاقة ٢١٢
السؤال
Recall?
الإجابة
Retrieving information with few external cues, as in an essay question.
البطاقة ٢١٣
السؤال
Retrieval cue?
الإجابة
A stimulus linked to a memory that helps bring it to awareness.
البطاقة ٢١٤
السؤال
Encoding-specificity principle?
الإجابة
Retrieval improves when cues at recall match cues present during encoding.
البطاقة ٢١٥
السؤال
Context-dependent memory?
الإجابة
Recall can improve in the same external environment where learning occurred.
البطاقة ٢١٦
السؤال
Does the hippocampus permanently store every explicit memory?
الإجابة
No. It helps form and consolidate new explicit memories, which later depend on distributed cortical networks.
البطاقة ٢١٧
السؤال
Echoic memory?
الإجابة
A brief auditory sensory memory that lasts longer than iconic memory.
البطاقة ٢١٨
السؤال
Anterograde amnesia?
الإجابة
Difficulty forming new long-term explicit memories after the onset of damage or illness.
البطاقة ٢١٩
السؤال
Phonological loop?
الإجابة
The working-memory component that briefly holds and rehearses verbal or sound information.
البطاقة ٢٢٠
السؤال
Cerebellum's memory role?
الإجابة
It supports procedural learning and some classically conditioned responses.
البطاقة ٢٢١
السؤال
Why is short-term memory described as limited?
الإجابة
It can hold only a small amount of information without rehearsal or chunking.
البطاقة ٢٢٢
السؤال
Retrograde amnesia?
الإجابة
Loss of memories formed before the onset of damage or illness.
البطاقة ٢٢٣
السؤال
Why are events tied to your own life often easier to remember?
الإجابة
The self-reference effect makes information connected to oneself more memorable.
البطاقة ٢٢٤
السؤال
How can the amygdala affect memory?
الإجابة
Emotional arousal can strengthen consolidation of emotionally significant events.
البطاقة ٢٢٥
السؤال
Visuospatial sketchpad?
الإجابة
The working-memory component that holds and manipulates visual and spatial information.
البطاقة ٢٢٦
السؤال
Long-term potentiation?
الإجابة
A lasting increase in synaptic efficiency after repeated activation, associated with learning and memory.
البطاقة ٢٢٧
السؤال
Infantile amnesia?
الإجابة
The typical inability to recall autobiographical events from the first few years of life.
البطاقة ٢٢٨
السؤال
Alzheimer's disease?
الإجابة
A progressive brain disorder that gradually impairs memory, reasoning, and daily functioning.
البطاقة ٢٢٩
السؤال
Scores are 2, 4, 4, 7, 9. What are the mode and range?
الإجابة
The mode is 4, and the range is 7 because 9 - 2 = 7.
البطاقة ٢٣٠
السؤال
Recognition?
الإجابة
Identifying previously learned information, as in selecting a familiar answer.
البطاقة ٢٣١
السؤال
Why is memory called reconstructive?
الإجابة
Recall rebuilds an event from stored details, schemas, expectations, and later information.
البطاقة ٢٣٢
السؤال
Storage decay?
الإجابة
A memory trace weakens over time, especially when it isn't used.
البطاقة ٢٣٣
السؤال
State-dependent memory?
الإجابة
Recall can improve when a person's internal state matches the state during learning.
البطاقة ٢٣٤
السؤال
Relearning?
الإجابة
Measuring memory by how much faster material is learned again.
البطاقة ٢٣٥
السؤال
Misinformation effect?
الإجابة
Misleading information after an event changes memory of the event.
البطاقة ٢٣٦
السؤال
A student recalls more in the original classroom. What claim is supported?
الإجابة
Matching environmental cues can aid retrieval; the setting didn't necessarily improve storage.
البطاقة ٢٣٧
السؤال
Mood-congruent memory?
الإجابة
A current mood makes similarly toned memories easier to retrieve.
البطاقة ٢٣٨
السؤال
Priming?
الإجابة
Exposure to one stimulus unconsciously influences the response to a later stimulus.
البطاقة ٢٣٩
السؤال
Tip-of-the-tongue state?
الإجابة
A temporary retrieval failure accompanied by a feeling that the answer is known.
البطاقة ٢٤٠
السؤال
Why does retrieval practice strengthen memory?
الإجابة
Each successful retrieval reinforces access routes and reveals what still needs study.
البطاقة ٢٤١
السؤال
Class A scores cluster near 80; Class B has the same mean but scores spread from 50 to 100. Which class has the larger standard deviation?
الإجابة
Class B, because its scores vary farther from the mean.
البطاقة ٢٤٢
السؤال
Metacognition?
الإجابة
Monitoring and regulating one's own thinking and learning.
البطاقة ٢٤٣
السؤال
Source amnesia?
الإجابة
Remembering information but misremembering where it came from.
البطاقة ٢٤٤
السؤال
Test standardization?
الإجابة
Administering a test consistently and establishing norms from a representative sample.
البطاقة ٢٤٥
السؤال
Reliability?
الإجابة
The consistency of a measurement across time, items, or scorers.
البطاقة ٢٤٦
السؤال
Stereotype threat?
الإجابة
Concern about confirming a negative group stereotype can interfere with performance.
البطاقة ٢٤٧
السؤال
General intelligence, or g?
الإجابة
A broad mental ability proposed to contribute to performance across many cognitive tasks.
البطاقة ٢٤٨
السؤال
Encoding failure?
الإجابة
Information never entered memory well enough to be stored, often because attention was weak.
البطاقة ٢٤٩
السؤال
Validity?
الإجابة
The extent to which evidence supports the interpretation and use of a test score.
البطاقة ٢٥٠
السؤال
Proactive interference?
الإجابة
Older learning disrupts recall of newer information.
البطاقة ٢٥١
السؤال
Imagination inflation?
الإجابة
Repeatedly imagining an event increases confidence that it really happened.
البطاقة ٢٥٢
السؤال
A forgetting curve drops sharply soon after learning, then flattens. What does this pattern show?
الإجابة
Forgetting is fastest soon after learning and slows over time.
البطاقة ٢٥٣
السؤال
Retrieval failure?
الإجابة
Stored information is temporarily inaccessible because effective cues are missing.
البطاقة ٢٥٤
السؤال
Retroactive interference?
الإجابة
Newer learning disrupts recall of older information.
البطاقة ٢٥٥
السؤال
A confident witness recalls a detail introduced after the event. Best conclusion?
الإجابة
Confidence doesn't guarantee accuracy; post-event misinformation may have altered the memory.
البطاقة ٢٥٦
السؤال
Repression in psychodynamic theory?
الإجابة
The proposed unconscious blocking of distressing memories or impulses from awareness.
البطاقة ٢٥٧
السؤال
Flashbulb memory?
الإجابة
A vivid memory for learning about an emotional event; confidence can remain high even when details change.
البطاقة ٢٥٨
السؤال
A study defines memory accuracy as the number of 20 words recalled after 24 hours. What design element is this?
الإجابة
An operational definition of memory accuracy.
البطاقة ٢٥٩
السؤال
A score is at the 84th percentile. What does that mean?
الإجابة
It is equal to or higher than about 84% of scores in the reference group.
البطاقة ٢٦٠
السؤال
Stereotype lift?
الإجابة
A performance boost that can occur when a negative stereotype targets another group, making one's own group seem comparatively advantaged.
البطاقة ٢٦١
السؤال
Achievement test?
الإجابة
An assessment of knowledge or skills already learned.
البطاقة ٢٦٢
السؤال
Construct validity?
الإجابة
How well evidence shows that a test measures the psychological construct it claims to measure.
البطاقة ٢٦٣
السؤال
Test–retest reliability?
الإجابة
Consistency of scores when the same assessment is administered to the same people at different times.
البطاقة ٢٦٤
السؤال
Why can't historical group differences on intelligence tests justify discriminatory policy?
الإجابة
Scores reflect testing conditions and social opportunity as well as measured ability; group averages don't define individuals or prove biological causation.
البطاقة ٢٦٥
السؤال
Multiple-abilities view of intelligence?
الإجابة
Intelligence includes several partly distinct abilities rather than one general capacity alone.
البطاقة ٢٦٦
السؤال
Aptitude test?
الإجابة
An assessment intended to predict capacity to learn or perform in the future.
البطاقة ٢٦٧
السؤال
Traditional IQ formula?
الإجابة
Mental age divided by chronological age, multiplied by 100. Modern tests use age-based norms instead.
البطاقة ٢٦٨
السؤال
Predictive validity?
الإجابة
How well a test score forecasts a relevant later outcome.
البطاقة ٢٦٩
السؤال
What does a normal score distribution look like?
الإجابة
Most scores cluster near the mean, with fewer scores toward either extreme.
البطاقة ٢٧٠
السؤال
Split-half reliability?
الإجابة
Consistency between two comparable halves of the same assessment.
البطاقة ٢٧١
السؤال
Two groups have different average test scores. What conclusion is not justified?
الإجابة
That every member differs or that biology caused the gap; within-group variation and social conditions matter.
البطاقة ٢٧٢
السؤال
Flynn effect?
الإجابة
Average intelligence-test scores have risen across generations in many populations, pointing to environmental influence.
البطاقة ٢٧٣
السؤال
A student treats mistakes as information and changes study strategies. Which mindset does this show?
الإجابة
A growth mindset; a fixed mindset treats ability as largely unchangeable.
البطاقة ٢٧٤
السؤال
Continuous versus stage development?
الإجابة
Continuous views emphasize gradual change; stage views describe distinct qualitative shifts.
البطاقة ٢٧٥
السؤال
How can prenatal environment affect later development?
الإجابة
Nutrition, stress, illness, and substance exposure can influence physical and neural development before birth.
البطاقة ٢٧٦
السؤال
Teratogen?
الإجابة
An environmental agent that can disrupt prenatal development, with effects depending on dose, timing, and susceptibility.
البطاقة ٢٧٧
السؤال
Maturation?
الإجابة
Biologically guided growth processes that unfold in a generally predictable sequence.
البطاقة ٢٧٨
السؤال
Stability–change question in development?
الإجابة
It asks which traits persist across life and which change with age or experience.
البطاقة ٢٧٩
السؤال
A researcher predicts that students who sleep at least eight hours will recall more words than students who sleep less. Why is this hypothesis falsifiable?
الإجابة
The groups and recall outcome can be measured, so evidence could show that the predicted difference does not occur.
البطاقة ٢٨٠
السؤال
Which method best tests whether a new study routine causes higher quiz scores?
الإجابة
An experiment that manipulates the routine and randomly assigns participants, because it can support a causal conclusion.
البطاقة ٢٨١
السؤال
Why do motor milestones follow a common order but different timing?
الإجابة
Maturation shapes the sequence, while biology and experience influence pace.
البطاقة ٢٨٢
السؤال
Fine versus gross motor skills?
الإجابة
Fine skills use small, precise movements; gross skills use larger muscle groups and whole-body movement.
البطاقة ٢٨٣
السؤال
Why are infant reflexes useful to researchers?
الإجابة
Their presence and change can indicate early nervous-system development.
البطاقة ٢٨٤
السؤال
What did the visual-cliff procedure test?
الإجابة
It tested whether infants would cross an apparent drop, providing evidence about depth perception and the influence of locomotor experience.
البطاقة ٢٨٥
السؤال
Puberty?
الإجابة
The period of sexual maturation driven by hormonal and physical changes.
البطاقة ٢٨٦
السؤال
Sensitive period?
الإجابة
A developmental window when experience has an especially strong effect, though learning may remain possible later.
البطاقة ٢٨٧
السؤال
What physical pattern commonly marks the start of adolescence?
الإجابة
A puberty-related growth spurt, with rapid increases in height and weight.
البطاقة ٢٨٨
السؤال
Primary versus secondary sex characteristics?
الإجابة
Primary characteristics are reproductive organs and functions; secondary characteristics are puberty-related traits not directly required for reproduction.
البطاقة ٢٨٩
السؤال
Which method best measures the relationship between adolescents' sleep duration and mood without assigning sleep schedules?
الإجابة
A correlational study, because both variables are measured rather than manipulated.
البطاقة ٢٩٠
السؤال
Older adults score lower than younger adults in one same-time comparison. Which design and alternative explanation limit an aging claim?
الإجابة
The study is cross-sectional, and a cohort effect could explain the difference because the age groups grew up under different conditions.
البطاقة ٢٩١
السؤال
Researchers test the same people yearly from ages 10 to 20. Which design is this, and what participant-loss risk should they track?
الإجابة
A longitudinal design; attrition can bias the results if those who leave differ from those who remain.
البطاقة ٢٩٢
السؤال
Menarche?
الإجابة
The first menstrual period.
البطاقة ٢٩٣
السؤال
Which method allows an intensive investigation of one person with an exceptionally rare developmental condition?
الإجابة
A case study, which provides depth but may not generalize to a wider population.
البطاقة ٢٩٤
السؤال
About what percentage of scores in a normal distribution lie within one standard deviation of the mean?
الإجابة
About 68%.
البطاقة ٢٩٥
السؤال
A prenatal exposure correlates with later difficulty. What limits a causal claim?
الإجابة
Other parental, health, and environmental variables may account for the association.
البطاقة ٢٩٦
السؤال
Spermarche?
الإجابة
The first ejaculation.
البطاقة ٢٩٧
السؤال
Which method combines results from many studies to estimate an overall effect?
الإجابة
A meta-analysis, which statistically synthesizes findings across studies.
البطاقة ٢٩٨
السؤال
Imprinting?
الإجابة
A rapid form of early learning in which some young animals form an attachment during a sensitive period.
البطاقة ٢٩٩
السؤال
Why can adolescent risk-taking increase?
الإجابة
Reward systems develop earlier than the prefrontal control systems used for planning and inhibition.
البطاقة ٣٠٠
السؤال
Menopause?
الإجابة
The natural end of menstrual cycles, diagnosed after 12 consecutive months without menstruation.
البطاقة ٣٠١
السؤال
Which method records children's playground behavior without directing or changing it?
الإجابة
Naturalistic observation.
البطاقة ٣٠٢
السؤال
How do mobility, flexibility, and reaction time typically change across later adulthood?
الإجابة
They tend to decline gradually, although health, activity, and individual differences affect the pace.
البطاقة ٣٠٣
السؤال
Gender identity?
الإجابة
A person's internal sense of their gender.
البطاقة ٣٠٤
السؤال
Gender role?
الإجابة
A culture's expectations for behavior associated with gender.
البطاقة ٣٠٥
السؤال
Sex versus gender?
الإجابة
Sex refers to biological traits; gender refers to identities, roles, and social meanings.
البطاقة ٣٠٦
السؤال
Common sensory change in later adulthood?
الإجابة
Vision and hearing sensitivity often decline, though the degree varies widely.
البطاقة ٣٠٧
السؤال
Sexual orientation?
الإجابة
A pattern of romantic or sexual attraction; it is distinct from gender identity.
البطاقة ٣٠٨
السؤال
Gender schema?
الإجابة
A mental framework that organizes information and expectations about gender.
البطاقة ٣٠٩
السؤال
Best broad view of gender development?
الإجابة
Biological, cognitive, social, and cultural influences interact.
البطاقة ٣١٠
السؤال
Does normal aging cause uniform cognitive decline?
الإجابة
No. Processing speed may slow, while knowledge and expertise can remain stable or grow.
البطاقة ٣١١
السؤال
Why shouldn't variation in gender identity or sexual orientation be treated as a disorder?
الإجابة
Variation alone isn't evidence of dysfunction; distress often reflects stigma or discrimination rather than identity.
البطاقة ٣١٢
السؤال
Schema in cognitive development?
الإجابة
A mental framework used to organize and interpret experience.
البطاقة ٣١٣
السؤال
Sensorimotor stage?
الإجابة
Infants learn through sensory experience and action and develop object permanence.
البطاقة ٣١٤
السؤال
Preoperational stage?
الإجابة
Young children use symbols and language but often lack conservation and show egocentric thinking.
البطاقة ٣١٥
السؤال
Assimilation?
الإجابة
Fitting new information into an existing schema.
البطاقة ٣١٦
السؤال
A learner cannot solve a puzzle alone but succeeds with a teacher's hints. Where is the task?
الإجابة
In the learner's zone of proximal development.
البطاقة ٣١٧
السؤال
Animism in preoperational thought?
الإجابة
Attributing life, feelings, or intentions to inanimate objects.
البطاقة ٣١٨
السؤال
Concrete operational stage?
الإجابة
Children reason logically about concrete events and understand conservation.
البطاقة ٣١٩
السؤال
Accommodation?
الإجابة
Changing a schema when new information doesn't fit it.
البطاقة ٣٢٠
السؤال
Reversibility in cognitive development?
الإجابة
Understanding that an operation can be mentally undone, a skill associated with concrete operational thought.
البطاقة ٣٢١
السؤال
How can social learning shape gender expression?
الإجابة
People observe models and receive reinforcement or punishment for gender-related behavior.
البطاقة ٣٢٢
السؤال
A child calls a zebra a horse because it fits an existing animal schema. Which process?
الإجابة
Assimilation.
البطاقة ٣٢٣
السؤال
Language?
الإجابة
A shared, rule-governed system of symbols used to communicate and generate ideas.
البطاقة ٣٢٤
السؤال
Cooing stage?
الإجابة
Early vowel-like sounds that typically appear before babbling.
البطاقة ٣٢٥
السؤال
Babbling stage?
الإجابة
Infants produce repeated speech-like sounds before meaningful words.
البطاقة ٣٢٦
السؤال
One-word stage?
الإجابة
A child uses single words to express whole ideas.
البطاقة ٣٢٧
السؤال
Grammar?
الإجابة
A language's system of rules for combining and interpreting symbols.
البطاقة ٣٢٨
السؤال
A child assumes everyone can see the picture visible only from the child's side of a model. Which limitation does this show?
الإجابة
Egocentrism: difficulty taking another person's visual perspective.
البطاقة ٣٢٩
السؤال
Crystallized intelligence across adulthood?
الإجابة
Accumulated knowledge and verbal skills often remain stable or increase.
البطاقة ٣٣٠
السؤال
A child revises an animal schema after learning that zebras aren't horses. Which process?
الإجابة
Accommodation.
البطاقة ٣٣١
السؤال
A teacher first models each step, then removes hints as the learner improves. What support strategy is this?
الإجابة
Scaffolding.
البطاقة ٣٣٢
السؤال
A child predicts that someone will search where that person last saw a toy, not where the toy really is. Which ability does this show?
الإجابة
Theory of mind: recognizing that another person can hold a different belief.
البطاقة ٣٣٣
السؤال
Fluid intelligence across adulthood?
الإجابة
Speedy reasoning with novel problems often peaks earlier and may decline gradually.
البطاقة ٣٣٤
السؤال
An infant searches for a toy after it is covered by a cloth. Which ability does this show?
الإجابة
Object permanence: understanding that the toy still exists when it cannot be seen.
البطاقة ٣٣٥
السؤال
Water is poured from a short glass into a taller, narrower glass, and a child says there is more water. Which concept is missing?
الإجابة
Conservation: understanding that quantity remains the same despite a change in appearance.
البطاقة ٣٣٦
السؤال
Formal operational stage?
الإجابة
Adolescents and adults can reason abstractly and test hypothetical possibilities.
البطاقة ٣٣٧
السؤال
Dementia?
الإجابة
A broad syndrome involving cognitive decline that interferes with daily life; it is not an inevitable part of normal aging.
البطاقة ٣٣٨
السؤال
Phoneme?
الإجابة
The smallest distinctive sound unit in a language.
البطاقة ٣٣٩
السؤال
Bronfenbrenner's ecological systems view?
الإجابة
Development reflects interactions between a person and nested social environments over time.
البطاقة ٣٤٠
السؤال
Temperament?
الإجابة
Early, biologically influenced patterns of emotional reactivity and self-regulation.
البطاقة ٣٤١
السؤال
Attachment?
الإجابة
An enduring emotional bond that supports proximity and security.
البطاقة ٣٤٢
السؤال
Erikson's infancy conflict?
الإجابة
Trust versus mistrust: dependable care supports a basic sense of security.
البطاقة ٣٤٣
السؤال
Microsystem?
الإجابة
Immediate settings and relationships, such as family, school, peers, and work.
البطاقة ٣٤٤
السؤال
Erikson's toddler conflict?
الإجابة
Autonomy versus shame and doubt: supported self-control builds independence.
البطاقة ٣٤٥
السؤال
Erikson's early-childhood conflict?
الإجابة
Initiative versus guilt: directing activities and plans supports purpose.
البطاقة ٣٤٦
السؤال
Erikson's school-age conflict?
الإجابة
Industry versus inferiority: mastering valued skills supports competence.
البطاقة ٣٤٧
السؤال
Mesosystem?
الإجابة
Connections among a person's microsystems, such as communication between family and school.
البطاقة ٣٤٨
السؤال
Erikson's adolescent conflict?
الإجابة
Identity versus role confusion: exploring and integrating roles supports identity.
البطاقة ٣٤٩
السؤال
Erikson's young-adult conflict?
الإجابة
Intimacy versus isolation: forming close, committed relationships.
البطاقة ٣٥٠
السؤال
Erikson's middle-adult conflict?
الإجابة
Generativity versus stagnation: contributing to others and the next generation.
البطاقة ٣٥١
السؤال
Exosystem?
الإجابة
Settings that affect a person indirectly, such as a caregiver's workplace.
البطاقة ٣٥٢
السؤال
Morpheme?
الإجابة
The smallest unit that carries meaning.
البطاقة ٣٥٣
السؤال
Telegraphic speech?
الإجابة
Early short phrases that contain essential words while omitting smaller grammatical words.
٧٠٥ بطاقات
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البطاقة ٣٥٤
السؤال
How do nonverbal gestures support language development?
الإجابة
Pointing, gaze, expression, and movement communicate meaning before and alongside spoken words.
البطاقة ٣٥٥
السؤال
Macrosystem?
الإجابة
The wider culture, values, laws, customs, and economic conditions surrounding development.
البطاقة ٣٥٦
السؤال
Semantics?
الإجابة
The meanings of words and sentences.
البطاقة ٣٥٧
السؤال
A child says “goed” after learning the usual past-tense pattern. What is this?
الإجابة
Overgeneralization: applying a language rule where an exception is required.
البطاقة ٣٥٨
السؤال
What does a sensitive period for language imply?
الإجابة
Early exposure supports fluent development, though later learning remains possible.
البطاقة ٣٥٩
السؤال
Does language completely determine thought?
الإجابة
No. Language can shape attention and categorization, but thought also occurs without words.
البطاقة ٣٦٠
السؤال
Syntax?
الإجابة
Rules for arranging words into phrases and sentences.
البطاقة ٣٦١
السؤال
A child explores while a caregiver is present, seeks contact at reunion, and is readily comforted. Which attachment pattern fits?
الإجابة
Secure attachment.
البطاقة ٣٦٢
السؤال
How does the behavioral perspective explain behavior?
الإجابة
It focuses on observable behavior learned through conditioning, reinforcement, punishment, and environmental cues.
البطاقة ٣٦٣
السؤال
Authoritative parenting?
الإجابة
High warmth with clear, consistent expectations and age-appropriate autonomy.
البطاقة ٣٦٤
السؤال
Identity achievement?
الإجابة
A person makes commitments after meaningful exploration.
البطاقة ٣٦٥
السؤال
Avoidant attachment pattern?
الإجابة
The child shows little contact-seeking and tends to avoid or ignore the caregiver at reunion.
البطاقة ٣٦٦
السؤال
Classical conditioning?
الإجابة
Learning that one stimulus predicts another, so a previously neutral stimulus elicits a response.
البطاقة ٣٦٧
السؤال
Unconditioned stimulus?
الإجابة
A stimulus that naturally produces a response without prior learning.
البطاقة ٣٦٨
السؤال
Unconditioned response?
الإجابة
The unlearned response naturally produced by an unconditioned stimulus.
البطاقة ٣٦٩
السؤال
Conditioned stimulus?
الإجابة
A previously neutral stimulus that elicits a learned response after association.
البطاقة ٣٧٠
السؤال
Conditioned response?
الإجابة
The learned response to a conditioned stimulus.
البطاقة ٣٧١
السؤال
Acquisition in classical conditioning?
الإجابة
The initial learning period when the neutral stimulus becomes associated with the unconditioned stimulus.
البطاقة ٣٧٢
السؤال
During acquisition, when should the conditioned stimulus usually appear relative to the unconditioned stimulus?
الإجابة
The conditioned stimulus should appear shortly before the unconditioned stimulus so it predicts what comes next.
البطاقة ٣٧٣
السؤال
Authoritarian parenting?
الإجابة
Low warmth with strict control and little discussion.
البطاقة ٣٧٤
السؤال
Identity diffusion?
الإجابة
A person has neither actively explored alternatives nor made firm commitments.
البطاقة ٣٧٥
السؤال
Extinction in classical conditioning?
الإجابة
The conditioned response weakens when the conditioned stimulus repeatedly appears without the unconditioned stimulus.
البطاقة ٣٧٦
السؤال
Anxious-resistant attachment pattern?
الإجابة
The child seeks contact but remains distressed or resists comfort at reunion.
البطاقة ٣٧٧
السؤال
Permissive parenting?
الإجابة
High warmth with few demands or limits.
البطاقة ٣٧٨
السؤال
Parallel play?
الإجابة
Young children play beside one another with similar materials but little direct coordination.
البطاقة ٣٧٩
السؤال
Imaginary audience?
الإجابة
An adolescent's belief that other people are constantly noticing and evaluating them.
البطاقة ٣٨٠
السؤال
Identity foreclosure?
الإجابة
A person commits without exploring alternatives, often adopting others' expectations.
البطاقة ٣٨١
السؤال
Disorganized attachment pattern?
الإجابة
The child shows contradictory, confused, or fearful behavior without a consistent reunion strategy.
البطاقة ٣٨٢
السؤال
Neglectful parenting?
الإجابة
Low warmth and low control or involvement.
البطاقة ٣٨٣
السؤال
Chronosystem?
الإجابة
Life transitions and historical changes that alter development over time.
البطاقة ٣٨٤
السؤال
Why is pretend play developmentally useful?
الإجابة
It lets children practice symbols, roles, perspective-taking, and social rules.
البطاقة ٣٨٥
السؤال
Personal fable?
الإجابة
An adolescent's sense that their experiences are unique and that ordinary risks may not apply to them.
البطاقة ٣٨٦
السؤال
Identity moratorium?
الإجابة
A person is actively exploring alternatives without yet making a stable commitment.
البطاقة ٣٨٧
السؤال
Best claim about adverse childhood experiences?
الإجابة
They can raise later health and relationship risks, but they don't determine an individual's outcome.
البطاقة ٣٨٨
السؤال
Separation anxiety in infancy?
الإجابة
Distress when a familiar caregiver leaves; it is common during part of typical development.
البطاقة ٣٨٩
السؤال
What did infant-monkey research suggest about attachment?
الإجابة
Comforting physical contact can be a stronger attachment cue than food alone.
البطاقة ٣٩٠
السؤال
Which research method does the Strange Situation use to assess attachment behavior?
الإجابة
Structured observation: researchers record behavior during standardized separations and reunions.
البطاقة ٣٩١
السؤال
Emerging adulthood?
الإجابة
A transitional period, often from the late teens through the twenties, marked by identity exploration and changing roles.
البطاقة ٣٩٢
السؤال
Social clock?
الإجابة
Culturally shaped expectations about when major life events should occur.
البطاقة ٣٩٣
السؤال
Erikson's later-adult conflict?
الإجابة
Integrity versus despair: evaluating life with acceptance rather than regret.
البطاقة ٣٩٤
السؤال
Possible selves?
الإجابة
Mental images of who a person might become, hopes to become, or fears becoming.
البطاقة ٣٩٥
السؤال
Stimulus generalization?
الإجابة
Stimuli similar to the conditioned stimulus also trigger the conditioned response.
البطاقة ٣٩٦
السؤال
Operant conditioning?
الإجابة
Learning in which consequences change the future frequency of voluntary behavior.
البطاقة ٣٩٧
السؤال
Law of effect?
الإجابة
Behaviors followed by satisfying consequences become more likely, while behaviors followed by unpleasant consequences become less likely.
البطاقة ٣٩٨
السؤال
Spontaneous recovery?
الإجابة
An extinguished conditioned response briefly returns after a rest period.
البطاقة ٣٩٩
السؤال
Stimulus discrimination?
الإجابة
Learning to respond differently to the conditioned stimulus and similar stimuli.
البطاقة ٤٠٠
السؤال
Reinforcement?
الإجابة
Any consequence that increases a behavior.
البطاقة ٤٠١
السؤال
Higher-order conditioning?
الإجابة
An established conditioned stimulus helps a new neutral stimulus become conditioned without direct pairing with the original unconditioned stimulus.
البطاقة ٤٠٢
السؤال
Counterconditioning?
الإجابة
Replacing an unwanted conditioned response by pairing the trigger with a new, incompatible response.
البطاقة ٤٠٣
السؤال
Habituation?
الإجابة
A reduced response after repeated exposure to a harmless, unchanged stimulus.
البطاقة ٤٠٤
السؤال
Punishment?
الإجابة
Any consequence that decreases a behavior.
البطاقة ٤٠٥
السؤال
Partial reinforcement?
الإجابة
Reinforcing only some responses; learning is slower, but behavior resists extinction.
البطاقة ٤٠٦
السؤال
Why can taste aversion form after one delayed pairing?
الإجابة
Biological preparedness makes certain food–illness associations especially easy to learn.
البطاقة ٤٠٧
السؤال
Most conditioning trials take 2–6 attempts, but one participant needs 24. What shape will the trial-count distribution likely have?
الإجابة
It will be right-skewed because the unusually high value stretches the upper tail.
البطاقة ٤٠٨
السؤال
Participants may encounter distressing images in a learning study. What must an institutional review board evaluate before approval?
الإجابة
Whether the scientific value justifies the risks and whether safeguards reduce those risks to an acceptable level.
البطاقة ٤٠٩
السؤال
Fixed-ratio schedule?
الإجابة
Reinforcement follows a set number of responses.
البطاقة ٤١٠
السؤال
Observational learning?
الإجابة
Learning by watching others and the consequences they receive.
البطاقة ٤١١
السؤال
A teacher adds praise after completed homework, and homework completion increases. Which consequence is this?
الإجابة
Positive reinforcement.
البطاقة ٤١٢
السؤال
Primary reinforcer?
الإجابة
A naturally rewarding stimulus tied to biological needs, such as food when hungry.
البطاقة ٤١٣
السؤال
Variable-ratio schedule?
الإجابة
Reinforcement follows an unpredictable number of responses, producing persistent responding.
البطاقة ٤١٤
السؤال
Modeling?
الإجابة
Performing a behavior after observing it in another person.
البطاقة ٤١٥
السؤال
Which response pattern is typical of a fixed-ratio schedule?
الإجابة
A high response rate followed by a brief pause after each reward.
البطاقة ٤١٦
السؤال
Fastening a seat belt stops an unpleasant alarm, making future fastening more likely. Which consequence is this?
الإجابة
Negative reinforcement.
البطاقة ٤١٧
السؤال
Conditioned reinforcer?
الإجابة
A learned reward that gains value through association, such as money or praise.
البطاقة ٤١٨
السؤال
A child sees a classmate praised for sharing and then shares more often. Which process may explain the change?
الإجابة
Vicarious reinforcement.
البطاقة ٤١٩
السؤال
Fixed-interval schedule?
الإجابة
The first response after a set amount of time is reinforced.
البطاقة ٤٢٠
السؤال
Which response pattern is typical of a variable-ratio schedule?
الإجابة
A high, steady response rate with little or no pause after rewards.
البطاقة ٤٢١
السؤال
A driver receives a fine, and speeding decreases. Which consequence is this?
الإجابة
Positive punishment.
البطاقة ٤٢٢
السؤال
Shaping?
الإجابة
Reinforcing successive approximations toward a target behavior.
البطاقة ٤٢٣
السؤال
Extinction in operant conditioning?
الإجابة
A behavior weakens when it no longer produces reinforcement.
البطاقة ٤٢٤
السؤال
Variable-interval schedule?
الإجابة
The first response after an unpredictable amount of time is reinforced.
البطاقة ٤٢٥
السؤال
A teenager loses gaming access, and missed curfews decrease. Which consequence is this?
الإجابة
Negative punishment.
البطاقة ٤٢٦
السؤال
Learned helplessness?
الإجابة
After repeated uncontrollable negative events, a person or animal stops trying to escape even when escape becomes possible.
البطاقة ٤٢٧
السؤال
Continuous reinforcement?
الإجابة
Reinforcing every occurrence of a behavior; learning is fast, but extinction is also fast.
البطاقة ٤٢٨
السؤال
A response record rises slowly after each reward, then accelerates as the next fixed time approaches. Which schedule produced this scalloped pattern?
الإجابة
A fixed-interval schedule.
البطاقة ٤٢٩
السؤال
Discriminative stimulus?
الإجابة
A cue that signals when a particular response is likely to be reinforced.
البطاقة ٤٣٠
السؤال
Operant generalization versus discrimination?
الإجابة
Generalization spreads a learned response to similar cues; discrimination limits it to cues that signal reinforcement.
البطاقة ٤٣١
السؤال
Instinctive drift?
الإجابة
A learned behavior shifts toward an animal's biologically predisposed behavior.
البطاقة ٤٣٢
السؤال
Which response pattern is typical of a variable-interval schedule?
الإجابة
A steady, moderate response rate because reinforcement can become available at unpredictable times.
البطاقة ٤٣٣
السؤال
How can superstitious behavior develop through operant conditioning?
الإجابة
A coincidental reward can reinforce a behavior that didn't actually cause the outcome.
البطاقة ٤٣٤
السؤال
How does similarity to a model affect observational learning?
الإجابة
Observers are often more likely to attend to and imitate models they see as similar or relevant.
البطاقة ٤٣٥
السؤال
Vicarious conditioning?
الإجابة
Learning an emotional response by observing another person's reaction to a stimulus.
البطاقة ٤٣٦
السؤال
A rat makes 12, 13, 11, and 12 responses in four equal time blocks, with rewards delivered at unpredictable times. Which schedule best fits this steady pattern?
الإجابة
A variable-interval schedule.
البطاقة ٤٣٧
السؤال
Children imitate a rewarded model more than a punished model. Supported claim?
الإجابة
Observed consequences can influence whether learned behavior is performed.
البطاقة ٤٣٨
السؤال
Why randomly assign children to watch either an aggressive or a calm model?
الإجابة
Random assignment helps balance preexisting differences between groups, strengthening a causal inference about the model's effect.
البطاقة ٤٣٩
السؤال
Latent learning?
الإجابة
Learning that occurs without obvious reinforcement and appears later when there is an incentive.
البطاقة ٤٤٠
السؤال
Cognitive map?
الإجابة
A mental representation of the layout of an environment.
البطاقة ٤٤١
السؤال
Insight learning?
الإجابة
A sudden cognitive solution without visible trial-and-error steps.
البطاقة ٤٤٢
السؤال
Biological preparedness?
الإجابة
An evolved readiness to learn some associations more easily than others.
البطاقة ٤٤٣
السؤال
What can mirror-neuron activity show?
الإجابة
Some neural systems respond during both action and observation, though this alone doesn't explain all imitation or empathy.
البطاقة ٤٤٤
السؤال
Attribution?
الإجابة
An explanation for the cause of a person's behavior or an event.
البطاقة ٤٤٥
السؤال
Attitude?
الإجابة
An evaluation of a person, object, issue, or behavior, involving beliefs, feelings, and action tendencies.
البطاقة ٤٤٦
السؤال
Upward social comparison?
الإجابة
Comparing oneself with someone doing better, which can inspire improvement or reduce satisfaction.
البطاقة ٤٤٧
السؤال
Optimistic explanatory style?
الإجابة
Explaining setbacks as temporary, specific, and changeable rather than permanent and global.
البطاقة ٤٤٨
السؤال
Situational attribution?
الإجابة
Explaining behavior through external circumstances or social context.
البطاقة ٤٤٩
السؤال
A person who values health keeps vaping and feels pressure to change either the behavior or the belief. What is this discomfort?
الإجابة
Cognitive dissonance.
البطاقة ٤٥٠
السؤال
Downward social comparison?
الإجابة
Comparing oneself with someone doing worse, which can protect self-evaluation.
البطاقة ٤٥١
السؤال
Internal locus of control?
الإجابة
The belief that one's actions strongly influence outcomes.
البطاقة ٤٥٢
السؤال
Dispositional attribution?
الإجابة
Explaining behavior through internal traits, motives, or abilities.
البطاقة ٤٥٣
السؤال
Pessimistic explanatory style?
الإجابة
Explaining setbacks as lasting, widespread, and rooted in personal failure.
البطاقة ٤٥٤
السؤال
Relative deprivation?
الإجابة
Feeling disadvantaged by comparing one's situation with the situation one believes others have.
البطاقة ٤٥٥
السؤال
External locus of control?
الإجابة
The belief that outcomes mainly depend on luck, fate, or powerful outside forces.
البطاقة ٤٥٦
السؤال
Fundamental attribution error?
الإجابة
Overestimating personality and underestimating the situation when explaining someone else's behavior.
البطاقة ٤٥٧
السؤال
Halo effect?
الإجابة
One favorable trait shapes an overly positive overall judgment of a person.
البطاقة ٤٥٨
السؤال
Self-fulfilling prophecy?
الإجابة
An expectation changes behavior in ways that help make the expected outcome occur.
البطاقة ٤٥٩
السؤال
Mere-exposure effect?
الإجابة
Repeated exposure to a neutral stimulus can increase liking.
البطاقة ٤٦٠
السؤال
A person blames their own lateness on traffic but another person's lateness on carelessness. Which attribution pattern is this?
الإجابة
The actor–observer difference.
البطاقة ٤٦١
السؤال
A voter compares evidence and checks the logic of a policy argument. Which persuasion route is being used?
الإجابة
The central route.
البطاقة ٤٦٢
السؤال
Effort justification?
الإجابة
Valuing an outcome more after investing substantial effort in it, which reduces dissonance.
البطاقة ٤٦٣
السؤال
Stereotype?
الإجابة
A generalized belief about members of a group.
البطاقة ٤٦٤
السؤال
A student credits skill for an A but blames an unfair test for an F. Which bias does this show?
الإجابة
Self-serving bias.
البطاقة ٤٦٥
السؤال
A shopper favors an unfamiliar product because a popular celebrity endorses it. Which persuasion route is being used?
الإجابة
The peripheral route.
البطاقة ٤٦٦
السؤال
Someone praises a dull task for a tiny reward, then reports liking it more. Which dissonance principle fits?
الإجابة
Insufficient justification: the small reward provides too little external explanation, so attitude change reduces dissonance.
البطاقة ٤٦٧
السؤال
Prejudice?
الإجابة
An unjustified attitude or emotional response toward a group and its members.
البطاقة ٤٦٨
السؤال
The same 40 workers complete equal-length tasks under both workloads:

Workload Errors

Low 2

High 8

Which attribution is better supported?
الإجابة
A situational attribution is better supported: with the same workers and equal exposure, the high-workload condition has more errors, though the table alone doesn't prove causation.
البطاقة ٤٦٩
السؤال
Why does source credibility affect persuasion?
الإجابة
People are more likely to accept a message from a source seen as knowledgeable and trustworthy.
البطاقة ٤٧٠
السؤال
Conformity?
الإجابة
Adjusting behavior or beliefs to match a group.
البطاقة ٤٧١
السؤال
Several witnesses each wait for someone else to help during an emergency. Which effect is this?
الإجابة
The bystander effect.
البطاقة ٤٧٢
السؤال
Diffusion of responsibility?
الإجابة
Each person feels less personally responsible when others are available to act.
البطاقة ٤٧٣
السؤال
How can taking on a role affect attitude?
الإجابة
Repeated role-consistent behavior can gradually shift beliefs and self-perception.
البطاقة ٤٧٤
السؤال
In-group bias?
الإجابة
Favoring one's own group over other groups.
البطاقة ٤٧٥
السؤال
After agreeing to display a small safety sticker, a resident later agrees to place a large sign. Which technique is this?
الإجابة
The foot-in-the-door technique.
البطاقة ٤٧٦
السؤال
A researcher recruits the first 60 students leaving one school cafeteria. What sampling method is this, and what is the main limit?
الإجابة
Convenience sampling; the sample may not represent the school's students or a broader population as well as a random sample would.
البطاقة ٤٧٧
السؤال
When do attitudes best predict behavior?
الإجابة
When the attitude is specific, accessible, personally important, and social pressure is limited.
البطاقة ٤٧٨
السؤال
Discrimination?
الإجابة
Unjustified behavior toward people because of group membership.
البطاقة ٤٧٩
السؤال
Out-group homogeneity effect?
الإجابة
Perceiving members of another group as more alike than members of one's own group.
البطاقة ٤٨٠
السؤال
After refusing an extreme request, a person agrees to a smaller related request. Which technique is this?
الإجابة
The door-in-the-face technique.
البطاقة ٤٨١
السؤال
A study finds r = +0.72 between attention to message evidence and attitude change. What does the coefficient show?
الإجابة
A strong positive association: greater attention tends to accompany greater attitude change, but the correlation does not establish causation.
البطاقة ٤٨٢
السؤال
Persuasion ratings cluster near 2 and 9 on a 10-point scale, with few scores near 5. What distribution shape does this suggest?
الإجابة
A bimodal distribution, with two distinct peaks.
البطاقة ٤٨٣
السؤال
Just-world belief?
الإجابة
The assumption that people generally get what they deserve, which can encourage victim blaming.
البطاقة ٤٨٤
السؤال
Implicit attitude?
الإجابة
An automatic evaluation that can affect responses without deliberate awareness.
البطاقة ٤٨٥
السؤال
Ethnocentrism?
الإجابة
Judging other cultures by the standards of one's own culture and treating one's own as superior.
البطاقة ٤٨٦
السؤال
How do confirmation bias and belief perseverance maintain an attitude?
الإجابة
People may favor supporting evidence and retain the belief even after its original support is discredited.
البطاقة ٤٨٧
السؤال
Normative social influence?
الإجابة
Conforming to gain approval or avoid rejection.
البطاقة ٤٨٨
السؤال
Psychodynamic view of personality?
الإجابة
Unconscious conflicts and motives influence personality and behavior.
البطاقة ٤٨٩
السؤال
Norm of reciprocity?
الإجابة
The expectation that people should return help or favors.
البطاقة ٤٩٠
السؤال
Individualism?
الإجابة
A cultural orientation that gives greater priority to personal goals, autonomy, and individual identity.
البطاقة ٤٩١
السؤال
Informational social influence?
الإجابة
Conforming because the group is treated as a source of accurate information.
البطاقة ٤٩٢
السؤال
Id?
الإجابة
The psychodynamic component driven by immediate gratification and the pleasure principle.
البطاقة ٤٩٣
السؤال
Altruism?
الإجابة
Helping intended to benefit another person without requiring a personal reward.
البطاقة ٤٩٤
السؤال
Social norm?
الإجابة
A group's shared expectation about acceptable behavior.
البطاقة ٤٩٥
السؤال
What tends to increase conformity?
الإجابة
Unanimity, group size up to a point, public responses, ambiguity, and group importance.
البطاقة ٤٩٦
السؤال
Ego?
الإجابة
The psychodynamic component that manages reality and balances competing demands.
البطاقة ٤٩٧
السؤال
A skilled runner improves before a crowd, but a beginner makes more errors. Which group effect fits?
الإجابة
Social facilitation: an audience strengthens the dominant response.
البطاقة ٤٩٨
السؤال
Collectivism?
الإجابة
A cultural orientation that gives greater priority to group goals, interdependence, and shared identity.
البطاقة ٤٩٩
السؤال
Obedience?
الإجابة
Changing behavior in response to a direct command from an authority.
البطاقة ٥٠٠
السؤال
Superego?
الإجابة
The psychodynamic component representing internalized moral standards.
البطاقة ٥٠١
السؤال
A person continues acting as if a painful diagnosis cannot be real despite clear evidence. Which defense mechanism fits?
الإجابة
Denial.
البطاقة ٥٠٢
السؤال
Social-responsibility norm?
الإجابة
The expectation that people should help those who depend on them or need assistance.
البطاقة ٥٠٣
السؤال
How does proximity affect attraction?
الإجابة
Frequent contact creates opportunities for familiarity and relationship development.
البطاقة ٥٠٤
السؤال
What tends to increase obedience?
الإجابة
A legitimate nearby authority, gradual escalation, institutional support, and distance from the affected person.
البطاقة ٥٠٥
السؤال
After an argument with a supervisor, an employee snaps at a roommate. Which defense mechanism fits?
الإجابة
Displacement.
البطاقة ٥٠٦
السؤال
Social loafing?
الإجابة
Exerting less effort when individual contributions to a group task aren't identifiable.
البطاقة ٥٠٧
السؤال
Multiculturalism?
الإجابة
Recognizing and supporting distinct cultural identities within a shared society or institution.
البطاقة ٥٠٨
السؤال
How does similarity affect attraction?
الإجابة
Shared attitudes, values, and interests often increase liking.
البطاقة ٥٠٩
السؤال
A person who feels hostile insists that everyone else is hostile toward them. Which defense mechanism fits?
الإجابة
Projection.
البطاقة ٥١٠
السؤال
Helping falls as group size rises. Best explanation?
الإجابة
Responsibility diffuses across more bystanders; the result doesn't show that groups eliminate empathy.
البطاقة ٥١١
السؤال
Deindividuation?
الإجابة
Reduced self-awareness and restraint in an anonymous or arousing group setting.
البطاقة ٥١٢
السؤال
Group polarization?
الإجابة
Discussion strengthens the group's initial average tendency.
البطاقة ٥١٣
السؤال
After being rejected, an applicant says the opportunity was worthless anyway. Which defense mechanism fits?
الإجابة
Rationalization.
البطاقة ٥١٤
السؤال
A cohesive team ignores warnings and pressures doubters to preserve agreement. Which process is this?
الإجابة
Groupthink.
البطاقة ٥١٥
السؤال
Pluralistic ignorance?
الإجابة
People privately reject a norm or perceive danger but assume others' calm behavior means it is accepted or safe.
البطاقة ٥١٦
السؤال
Social trap?
الإجابة
Individuals pursue short-term self-interest that produces a worse long-term outcome for everyone.
البطاقة ٥١٧
السؤال
Reaction formation?
الإجابة
Expressing the opposite of an unacceptable impulse.
البطاقة ٥١٨
السؤال
Superordinate goal?
الإجابة
A shared goal that competing groups can reach only through cooperation.
البطاقة ٥١٩
السؤال
False-consensus effect?
الإجابة
Overestimating how widely other people share one's beliefs or behavior.
البطاقة ٥٢٠
السؤال
Industrial-organizational psychology?
الإجابة
Applying psychological science to work, organizations, hiring, performance, and employee well-being.
البطاقة ٥٢١
السؤال
Repression?
الإجابة
Unconsciously blocking distressing thoughts or impulses from awareness.
البطاقة ٥٢٢
السؤال
Burnout?
الإجابة
Work-related exhaustion, detachment or cynicism, and reduced sense of effectiveness after chronic stress.
البطاقة ٥٢٣
السؤال
Unconditional positive regard?
الإجابة
Acceptance and respect that aren't dependent on meeting another person's conditions.
البطاقة ٥٢٤
السؤال
Trait?
الإجابة
A relatively stable tendency to think, feel, or behave in a certain way.
البطاقة ٥٢٥
السؤال
Regression as a defense mechanism?
الإجابة
Reverting to an earlier pattern of behavior when facing stress or conflict.
البطاقة ٥٢٦
السؤال
Reciprocal determinism?
الإجابة
Behavior, personal factors, and environment influence one another.
البطاقة ٥٢٧
السؤال
Self-efficacy?
الإجابة
Belief in one's ability to perform a specific task or meet a challenge.
البطاقة ٥٢٨
السؤال
Self-concept in humanistic theory?
الإجابة
A person's organized understanding of who they are.
البطاقة ٥٢٩
السؤال
Sublimation as a defense mechanism?
الإجابة
Redirecting an unacceptable impulse into a socially valued activity.
البطاقة ٥٣٠
السؤال
A person seeks novel ideas, art, and unfamiliar experiences. Which Big Five trait is most evident?
الإجابة
Openness.
البطاقة ٥٣١
السؤال
Personality inventory?
الإجابة
A standardized self-report questionnaire used to measure traits or patterns.
البطاقة ٥٣٢
السؤال
Self-actualizing tendency?
الإجابة
The humanistic idea that people are motivated to grow and fulfill their capacities.
البطاقة ٥٣٣
السؤال
Self-esteem?
الإجابة
A person's overall evaluation of their worth or value.
البطاقة ٥٣٤
السؤال
Instinct in motivation research?
الإجابة
An innate, typically fixed behavior pattern in nonhuman animals; this framework doesn't classify human motivation as instinctual.
البطاقة ٥٣٥
السؤال
A person plans carefully, meets deadlines, and follows through. Which Big Five trait is most evident?
الإجابة
Conscientiousness.
البطاقة ٥٣٦
السؤال
Projective test?
الإجابة
An ambiguous stimulus used to invite responses thought to reflect inner themes; reliability and validity can be limited.
البطاقة ٥٣٧
السؤال
How does factor analysis help trait research?
الإجابة
It identifies clusters of correlated behaviors or questionnaire items that may reflect broader traits.
البطاقة ٥٣٨
السؤال
Drive-reduction theory?
الإجابة
A physiological need creates arousal that motivates behavior to restore balance.
البطاقة ٥٣٩
السؤال
A person is sociable, assertive, and energized by group interaction. Which Big Five trait is most evident?
الإجابة
Extraversion.
البطاقة ٥٤٠
السؤال
Person–situation debate?
الإجابة
It asks how much behavior reflects stable traits versus changing contexts.
البطاقة ٥٤١
السؤال
A training study reports Cohen's d = 0.65 for improvement in self-efficacy. What does this statistic describe?
الإجابة
The standardized size of the group difference; 0.65 is commonly interpreted as a moderate effect, not proof that the result will matter equally in every setting.
البطاقة ٥٤٢
السؤال
Homeostasis?
الإجابة
The body's tendency to maintain a stable internal state.
البطاقة ٥٤٣
السؤال
Incentive theory?
الإجابة
External rewards or goals pull behavior toward them.
البطاقة ٥٤٤
السؤال
Big Five agreeableness?
الإجابة
Compassion, trust, and cooperativeness.
البطاقة ٥٤٥
السؤال
A student retakes a questionnaire after an unusually low self-efficacy score and scores closer to their usual level. What statistical tendency may explain part of the change?
الإجابة
Regression toward the mean: an extreme score is often followed by a less extreme score because temporary influences are unlikely to repeat exactly.
البطاقة ٥٤٦
السؤال
A student must choose between two appealing internships. Which motivational conflict is this?
الإجابة
An approach–approach conflict.
البطاقة ٥٤٧
السؤال
Arousal theory of motivation?
الإجابة
People seek a personally suitable level of stimulation.
البطاقة ٥٤٨
السؤال
Big Five emotional stability?
الإجابة
A tendency toward calm and resilience; it is the inverse of neuroticism.
البطاقة ٥٤٩
السؤال
What regulates hunger?
الإجابة
Biological signals such as ghrelin and leptin interact with learning, culture, stress, and food cues.
البطاقة ٥٥٠
السؤال
Three broad components of emotion?
الإجابة
Physiological arousal, expressive behavior, and conscious experience or appraisal.
البطاقة ٥٥١
السؤال
Self-determination theory?
الإجابة
Motivation grows when autonomy, competence, and relatedness are supported.
البطاقة ٥٥٢
السؤال
Emotion regulation?
الإجابة
Processes used to influence which emotions arise, when they arise, and how they are expressed.
البطاقة ٥٥٣
السؤال
Sensation-seeking?
الإجابة
A tendency to pursue novel, varied, or intense experiences, sometimes despite risk.
البطاقة ٥٥٤
السؤال
Cognitive appraisal in emotion?
الإجابة
Interpreting what an event means for one's goals, safety, or well-being.
البطاقة ٥٥٥
السؤال
Intrinsic motivation?
الإجابة
Doing an activity for its own interest or satisfaction.
البطاقة ٥٥٦
السؤال
Display rules?
الإجابة
Cultural norms that shape when and how emotions are expressed.
البطاقة ٥٥٧
السؤال
Arousal and performance relationship?
الإجابة
Moderate arousal often supports difficult tasks, while higher arousal can help simple or well-learned tasks.
البطاقة ٥٥٨
السؤال
A promotion offers higher pay but requires an unwanted move. Which motivational conflict is this?
الإجابة
An approach–avoidance conflict.
البطاقة ٥٥٩
السؤال
Extrinsic motivation?
الإجابة
Doing an activity for an external reward or to avoid punishment.
البطاقة ٥٦٠
السؤال
Achievement motivation?
الإجابة
The drive to meet standards, master tasks, and pursue success.
البطاقة ٥٦١
السؤال
Four sensation-seeking dimensions?
الإجابة
Thrill and adventure seeking, experience seeking, disinhibition, and boredom susceptibility.
البطاقة ٥٦٢
السؤال
A person must either pay a fine or complete an unpleasant course. Which motivational conflict is this?
الإجابة
An avoidance–avoidance conflict.
البطاقة ٥٦٣
السؤال
Overjustification effect?
الإجابة
Expected external rewards can reduce intrinsic interest in an activity already enjoyed.
البطاقة ٥٦٤
السؤال
Belongingness motivation?
الإجابة
The drive to form and maintain stable, positive relationships with other people.
البطاقة ٥٦٥
السؤال
Study time changed after students chose their own topic:

Condition Mean minutes

Assigned topic 34

Chosen topic 47

What is the observed mean difference?
الإجابة
13 minutes more in the chosen-topic condition; the table alone does not show whether the difference is statistically significant.
البطاقة ٥٦٦
السؤال
Facial-feedback effect?
الإجابة
Facial expressions can influence the emotion a person experiences.
البطاقة ٥٦٧
السؤال
Can bodily arousal occur before conscious interpretation?
الإجابة
Yes. Some emotional responses begin quickly, while later appraisal shapes the experience.
البطاقة ٥٦٨
السؤال
A speaker reframes a racing heart as readiness rather than danger. Which emotion-regulation strategy is this?
الإجابة
Cognitive reappraisal.
البطاقة ٥٦٩
السؤال
Broaden-and-build view?
الإجابة
Positive emotion can widen attention and action possibilities, helping build lasting resources.
البطاقة ٥٧٠
السؤال
Which emotions often appear across cultures?
الإجابة
Anger, disgust, sadness, happiness, surprise, and fear, though findings on universality are mixed.
البطاقة ٥٧١
السؤال
How can the same arousal become different emotions?
الإجابة
Context and cognitive interpretation can label similar physiological arousal differently.
البطاقة ٥٧٢
السؤال
Expressive suppression?
الإجابة
Inhibiting the outward display of emotion after it has arisen.
البطاقة ٥٧٣
السؤال
How does acute stress affect the body?
الإجابة
It activates sympathetic and hormonal responses that mobilize energy for immediate demands.
البطاقة ٥٧٤
السؤال
Cultures differ in public emotional expression. What shouldn't be concluded?
الإجابة
That people in one culture don't experience the emotion; display rules can alter expression.
البطاقة ٥٧٥
السؤال
In a medication study, neither participants nor outcome raters know who receives the active drug or an inactive pill. What two safeguards are present?
الإجابة
A placebo control and double-blinding, which reduce expectancy effects and observer bias.
البطاقة ٥٧٦
السؤال
A scatterplot rises from lower left to upper right, with points close to a line. What relationship does it show?
الإجابة
A strong positive correlation: higher values of one variable tend to occur with higher values of the other.
البطاقة ٥٧٧
السؤال
Health psychology?
الإجابة
The study of how biological, psychological, and social factors affect health and illness.
البطاقة ٥٧٨
السؤال
Positive psychology?
الإجابة
The scientific study of strengths, well-being, and conditions that help people and communities thrive.
البطاقة ٥٧٩
السؤال
Stress?
الإجابة
The process of appraising and responding to events viewed as threatening or demanding.
البطاقة ٥٨٠
السؤال
A study records stress ratings from 1 to 10 and also collects open-ended descriptions. Which data are quantitative and which are qualitative?
الإجابة
The numeric ratings are quantitative; the written descriptions are qualitative.
البطاقة ٥٨١
السؤال
Why do sleep, exercise, and nutrition matter to health psychology?
الإجابة
They are behaviors that interact with stress and biology to influence health outcomes.
البطاقة ٥٨٢
السؤال
Resilience?
الإجابة
Adapting or recovering after adversity; it is a process, not a guarantee of being unaffected.
البطاقة ٥٨٣
السؤال
Stressor?
الإجابة
An event or condition that challenges a person's ability to cope.
البطاقة ٥٨٤
السؤال
General adaptation syndrome?
الإجابة
A three-phase pattern of alarm, resistance, and exhaustion under prolonged stress.
البطاقة ٥٨٥
السؤال
A worker makes a schedule and asks for resources to reduce a controllable workload. Which coping approach is this?
الإجابة
Problem-focused coping.
البطاقة ٥٨٦
السؤال
A stress study uses nonhuman animals. What ethical duties apply?
الإجابة
Researchers need scientific justification, humane care, the least possible pain and distress, and oversight by an institutional animal care and use committee.
البطاقة ٥٨٧
السؤال
A student first judges whether an upcoming exam threatens an important goal. Which appraisal is this?
الإجابة
Primary appraisal.
البطاقة ٥٨٨
السؤال
What happens during the alarm phase of general adaptation syndrome?
الإجابة
A fight, flight, or freeze response mobilizes resources when the stressor is first encountered.
البطاقة ٥٨٩
السؤال
How can major trauma and daily hassles both create stress?
الإجابة
One can overwhelm through intensity, while repeated smaller demands can accumulate over time.
البطاقة ٥٩٠
السؤال
A person uses breathing and social support to manage feelings about an unchangeable loss. Which coping approach is this?
الإجابة
Emotion-focused coping.
البطاقة ٥٩١
السؤال
The student next considers available study time, tutoring, and coping options. Which appraisal is this?
الإجابة
Secondary appraisal.
البطاقة ٥٩٢
السؤال
Why can prolonged exhaustion increase illness risk?
الإجابة
Stress resources are depleted, and sustained physiological activation can weaken health and immune function.
البطاقة ٥٩٣
السؤال
Adverse childhood experiences?
الإجابة
Potentially traumatic childhood conditions linked with higher later health risks, without determining any one person's outcome.
البطاقة ٥٩٤
السؤال
How can social support protect health?
الإجابة
It provides practical help, belonging, perspective, and a buffer against stress.
البطاقة ٥٩٥
السؤال
Eustress versus distress?
الإجابة
Eustress is experienced as motivating or manageable; distress is experienced as harmful or overwhelming.
البطاقة ٥٩٦
السؤال
Tend-and-befriend response?
الإجابة
Coping with stress by caring for needs and seeking supportive connection, a pattern observed especially among women.
البطاقة ٥٩٧
السؤال
Two interviewees say, “After the setback, I adjusted my plan” and “I recovered and kept working toward my goal.” Which well-being concept appears in both qualitative responses?
الإجابة
Resilience; both accounts describe adapting or recovering after adversity.
البطاقة ٥٩٨
السؤال
Biofeedback?
الإجابة
Using real-time information about bodily activity to learn voluntary regulation of that activity.
البطاقة ٥٩٩
السؤال
How does perceived control affect stress?
الإجابة
A sense of control often reduces stress, while uncontrollability can intensify it.
البطاقة ٦٠٠
السؤال
Psychoneuroimmunology?
الإجابة
The study of interactions among psychological processes, the nervous system, hormones, and immune function.
البطاقة ٦٠١
السؤال
Subjective well-being?
الإجابة
A person's life satisfaction together with the balance of positive and negative emotion.
البطاقة ٦٠٢
السؤال
Psychological disorder?
الإجابة
A clinically significant disturbance in thought, emotion, or behavior that causes distress or impairment.
البطاقة ٦٠٣
السؤال
How can gratitude practice affect well-being?
الإجابة
Regularly noticing valued experiences can increase positive emotion for some people, though effects vary.
البطاقة ٦٠٤
السؤال
A school survey samples 120 students from a population of 1,800 enrolled students. What are the sample and population?
الإجابة
The 120 respondents are the sample; all 1,800 enrolled students are the target population.
البطاقة ٦٠٥
السؤال
Signature strengths?
الإجابة
Character strengths that are especially central and natural to a person and can be used deliberately.
البطاقة ٦٠٦
السؤال
Biopsychosocial model?
الإجابة
Biological, psychological, and sociocultural factors interact in health and disorder.
البطاقة ٦٠٧
السؤال
Six broad virtue categories in positive psychology?
الإجابة
Wisdom, courage, humanity, justice, temperance, and transcendence.
البطاقة ٦٠٨
السؤال
Posttraumatic growth?
الإجابة
Positive psychological change that can develop through struggling with trauma or major stress; it doesn't erase harm.
البطاقة ٦٠٩
السؤال
An optional well-being survey is completed mostly by students who already attend wellness clubs. How does this affect generalizability?
الإجابة
Self-selection creates sampling bias, so the results may not generalize to students with different interests or experiences.
البطاقة ٦١٠
السؤال
A survey asks people to report how often they exercise. What limitation should the researcher consider?
الإجابة
Self-report can be distorted by inaccurate memory, question wording, or socially desirable answers.
البطاقة ٦١١
السؤال
A treatment comparison reports p = .03 with a preset alpha of .05. Is the result statistically significant?
الإجابة
Yes. Because .03 is below .05, the result is statistically significant, though that does not show the effect is large or important.
البطاقة ٦١٢
السؤال
A striking well-being result appears in one small study. What should happen before confidence grows?
الإجابة
Independent replication and critical peer review should test whether the finding is reliable and the methods support the claim.
البطاقة ٦١٣
السؤال
Biological explanation of disorder?
الإجابة
It focuses on genetic, neural, hormonal, or other physiological factors.
البطاقة ٦١٤
السؤال
Attention-deficit/hyperactivity disorder?
الإجابة
A neurodevelopmental disorder involving developmentally inappropriate inattention and/or hyperactivity-impulsivity that impairs functioning.
البطاقة ٦١٥
السؤال
Purpose of the DSM?
الإجابة
It supplies shared diagnostic categories and criteria for communication, research, and treatment planning.
البطاقة ٦١٦
السؤال
What must informed consent explain before people join a psychology study?
الإجابة
The study's general nature, foreseeable risks and benefits, confidentiality limits, voluntary participation, and the right to withdraw. Research with minors also generally requires guardian permission and the child's assent.
البطاقة ٦١٧
السؤال
Behavioral explanation of disorder?
الإجابة
It focuses on maladaptive responses learned through conditioning or observation.
البطاقة ٦١٨
السؤال
Autism spectrum disorder?
الإجابة
A neurodevelopmental disorder involving differences in social communication and restricted or repetitive behavior, with varied support needs.
البطاقة ٦١٩
السؤال
Schizophrenia's broad symptom areas?
الإجابة
Delusions, hallucinations, disorganized thought or speech, disorganized movement, and negative symptoms.
البطاقة ٦٢٠
السؤال
Major depressive disorder?
الإجابة
A sustained depressive episode with mood, cognitive, physical, and motivational changes that impair functioning.
البطاقة ٦٢١
السؤال
Specific phobia?
الإجابة
Intense, persistent fear of a particular object or situation that leads to avoidance or distress.
البطاقة ٦٢٢
السؤال
Obsessive-compulsive disorder?
الإجابة
Obsessions, compulsions, or both consume time or cause significant distress or impairment.
البطاقة ٦٢٣
السؤال
Dissociative amnesia?
الإجابة
Inability to recall important autobiographical information, usually related to trauma or stress, beyond ordinary forgetting.
البطاقة ٦٢٤
السؤال
Bipolar I disorder?
الإجابة
A bipolar disorder defined by at least one full manic episode, often with depressive episodes.
البطاقة ٦٢٥
السؤال
Posttraumatic stress disorder?
الإجابة
Persistent intrusion, avoidance, negative mood or thinking, and heightened arousal after trauma exposure.
البطاقة ٦٢٦
السؤال
Anorexia nervosa?
الإجابة
Persistent energy restriction, significantly low body weight, intense fear of weight gain, and disturbed body experience.
البطاقة ٦٢٧
السؤال
Cognitive explanation of disorder?
الإجابة
It focuses on maladaptive beliefs, interpretations, and thinking patterns.
البطاقة ٦٢٨
السؤال
Bipolar II disorder?
الإجابة
A bipolar disorder involving hypomanic and major depressive episodes without a full manic episode.
البطاقة ٦٢٩
السؤال
Purpose of the ICD?
الإجابة
The World Health Organization's classification system supplies internationally used codes and categories for health conditions, including mental disorders.
البطاقة ٦٣٠
السؤال
Bulimia nervosa?
الإجابة
Repeated binge eating followed by compensatory behavior, with self-evaluation strongly influenced by body shape or weight.
البطاقة ٦٣١
السؤال
What broadly defines a personality disorder pattern?
الإجابة
An enduring, inflexible pattern that departs from cultural expectations, begins in adolescence or early adulthood, and causes distress or impairment.
البطاقة ٦٣٢
السؤال
Ataque de nervios?
الإجابة
A culture-related syndrome, described especially in some Latin American and Caribbean communities, involving an acute episode of intense emotional distress and loss of control.
البطاقة ٦٣٣
السؤال
Psychodynamic explanation of disorder?
الإجابة
It focuses on unconscious conflicts and early relationships.
البطاقة ٦٣٤
السؤال
Three considerations when identifying a psychological disorder?
الإجابة
Dysfunction, experienced distress, and deviation from social norms, interpreted with cultural context.
البطاقة ٦٣٥
السؤال
When may deception be ethically considered in research, and what must follow?
الإجابة
Only when justified, minimal-risk, and not replaceable by a practical alternative; researchers must debrief participants promptly and explain the deception.
البطاقة ٦٣٦
السؤال
Comorbidity?
الإجابة
The presence of two or more disorders in the same person.
البطاقة ٦٣٧
السؤال
Humanistic explanation of distress?
الإجابة
It focuses on blocked growth, incongruence, and conditions of worth.
البطاقة ٦٣٨
السؤال
Confidential versus anonymous research data?
الإجابة
Confidential data can be linked to identities but are protected; anonymous data are collected without identifying links.
البطاقة ٦٣٩
السؤال
Stigma around mental disorder?
الإجابة
Negative stereotypes and discrimination that can increase distress and discourage help-seeking.
البطاقة ٦٤٠
السؤال
Why must diagnosis consider culture?
الإجابة
Norms affect how distress is expressed and interpreted, so behavior can't be judged outside its context.
البطاقة ٦٤١
السؤال
Sociocultural explanation of disorder?
الإجابة
It focuses on social roles, inequality, relationships, discrimination, and cultural context.
البطاقة ٦٤٢
السؤال
Two clinicians independently use the same criteria. What quality is being checked?
الإجابة
Interrater reliability.
البطاقة ٦٤٣
السؤال
A category improves communication but overlaps another category. Balanced conclusion?
الإجابة
Classification is useful, but boundaries and comorbidity limit the idea of perfectly separate disorders.
البطاقة ٦٤٤
السؤال
Best account of neurodevelopmental-disorder causes?
الإجابة
Genetic, physiological, and environmental factors may interact; no single cause explains every case.
البطاقة ٦٤٥
السؤال
Evolutionary explanation of disorder?
الإجابة
It asks whether a behavior or mental process reflects an adaptation, mismatch, or cost related to survival and reproduction.
البطاقة ٦٤٦
السؤال
Delusion?
الإجابة
A firmly held false belief that persists despite strong contrary evidence and isn't explained by cultural context.
البطاقة ٦٤٧
السؤال
Agoraphobia?
الإجابة
Intense fear of situations where escape or help may feel difficult, such as crowds, transit, open spaces, or being outside alone.
البطاقة ٦٤٨
السؤال
Best account of schizophrenia risk?
الإجابة
Biological vulnerability, including genetic and neural factors, interacts with prenatal and later environmental stressors.
البطاقة ٦٤٩
السؤال
Eclectic approach to disorder?
الإجابة
Using ideas or treatments from more than one psychological perspective when evidence and client needs support them.
البطاقة ٦٥٠
السؤال
Hallucination?
الإجابة
A sensory perception without a matching external stimulus.
البطاقة ٦٥١
السؤال
Panic disorder?
الإجابة
Recurrent unexpected panic attacks followed by continuing concern or behavior change related to more attacks.
البطاقة ٦٥٢
السؤال
Best account of depressive-disorder causes?
الإجابة
Biological vulnerability can interact with learning, cognition, relationships, culture, and stressful events.
البطاقة ٦٥٣
السؤال
Two people face the same stressor, but the person with greater underlying vulnerability develops symptoms. Which model fits?
الإجابة
The diathesis–stress model.
البطاقة ٦٥٤
السؤال
Cluster A personality disorders?
الإجابة
The odd or eccentric cluster: paranoid, schizoid, and schizotypal personality disorders.
البطاقة ٦٥٥
السؤال
What do psychotherapy meta-analyses generally find?
الإجابة
Psychotherapy is effective on average, while outcomes vary by problem, method, therapist, and client.
البطاقة ٦٥٦
السؤال
Evidence-based treatment?
الإجابة
Using the best research evidence together with clinical expertise and the client's needs, culture, and preferences.
البطاقة ٦٥٧
السؤال
Therapeutic alliance?
الإجابة
A collaborative, trusting relationship in which client and therapist agree on goals and work.
البطاقة ٦٥٨
السؤال
Cultural humility in therapy?
الإجابة
Ongoing self-reflection, respect, and willingness to learn from the client's cultural experience.
البطاقة ٦٥٩
السؤال
Deinstitutionalization?
الإجابة
Moving many people from long-term psychiatric hospitals toward community-based care, aided partly by medication.
البطاقة ٦٦٠
السؤال
A client safely approaches a feared situation in planned steps instead of avoiding it. Which treatment method is this?
الإجابة
Exposure therapy.
البطاقة ٦٦١
السؤال
Nonmaleficence in therapy?
الإجابة
Avoiding or minimizing harm.
البطاقة ٦٦٢
السؤال
Four medication categories in the course?
الإجابة
Antidepressants, antianxiety drugs, lithium, and antipsychotic medications.
البطاقة ٦٦٣
السؤال
Depressive cognitive triad?
الإجابة
Negative views of oneself, the world, and the future.
البطاقة ٦٦٤
السؤال
Applied behavior analysis?
الإجابة
Using measured learning principles to change socially significant behavior.
البطاقة ٦٦٥
السؤال
Psychosurgery?
الإجابة
Rare invasive treatment that alters brain tissue; modern use is tightly limited because effects can be irreversible.
البطاقة ٦٦٦
السؤال
Free association?
الإجابة
A psychodynamic technique in which a client says whatever comes to mind to explore unconscious themes.
البطاقة ٦٦٧
السؤال
A client examines evidence for an automatic thought and develops a more accurate alternative. Which technique is this?
الإجابة
Cognitive restructuring.
البطاقة ٦٦٨
السؤال
One advantage of group therapy?
الإجابة
Members can receive support, feedback, and practice with others while learning they aren't alone.
البطاقة ٦٦٩
السؤال
Lobotomy?
الإجابة
An obsolete form of psychosurgery that cut frontal-lobe connections and often caused severe, irreversible harm.
البطاقة ٦٧٠
السؤال
Best account of bipolar-disorder causes?
الإجابة
Biological and genetic influences are important, while stress and social context can affect episodes.
البطاقة ٦٧١
السؤال
Cognitive-behavioral therapy?
الإجابة
Treatment that changes maladaptive thinking and behavior together.
البطاقة ٦٧٢
السؤال
Disorganized speech in schizophrenia?
الإجابة
Speech becomes difficult to follow because ideas or words are connected in disordered ways.
البطاقة ٦٧٣
السؤال
Social anxiety disorder?
الإجابة
Intense fear of scrutiny or negative evaluation in social situations.
البطاقة ٦٧٤
السؤال
Best account of obsessive-compulsive-disorder causes?
الإجابة
Biological factors and learned relief from compulsions can combine with maladaptive beliefs.
البطاقة ٦٧٥
السؤال
Rational-emotive behavior therapy?
الإجابة
A cognitive-behavioral approach that challenges rigid, irrational beliefs and builds more workable alternatives.
البطاقة ٦٧٦
السؤال
Dissociative fugue?
الإجابة
Dissociative amnesia accompanied by unexpected travel or confusion about identity.
البطاقة ٦٧٧
السؤال
Cluster B personality disorders?
الإجابة
The dramatic, emotional, or erratic cluster: antisocial, borderline, histrionic, and narcissistic personality disorders.
البطاقة ٦٧٨
السؤال
Best account of anxiety-disorder causes?
الإجابة
Biological vulnerability, learned fear, avoidance, and maladaptive interpretation can interact.
البطاقة ٦٧٩
السؤال
Catatonia?
الإجابة
Markedly disordered movement, which can include unusual excitement or profound lack of movement.
البطاقة ٦٨٠
السؤال
Manic episode?
الإجابة
A distinct period of unusually elevated or irritable mood and increased energy severe enough to cause major impairment or require hospitalization.
البطاقة ٦٨١
السؤال
Dissociative identity disorder?
الإجابة
Disruption of identity involving distinct personality states and gaps in autobiographical memory.
البطاقة ٦٨٢
السؤال
Best account of feeding and eating disorder causes?
الإجابة
Biological, cognitive, behavioral, family, social, and cultural factors can interact.
البطاقة ٦٨٣
السؤال
Cluster C personality disorders?
الإجابة
The anxious or fearful cluster: avoidant, dependent, and obsessive-compulsive personality disorders.
البطاقة ٦٨٤
السؤال
Taijin kyofusho?
الإجابة
A culture-related syndrome described in Japan involving intense fear that one's appearance, gaze, odor, or behavior will offend or embarrass other people.
البطاقة ٦٨٥
السؤال
Negative symptom of schizophrenia?
الإجابة
A reduction in a typical function, such as emotional expression, speech, motivation, or movement.
البطاقة ٦٨٦
السؤال
What experiences are often linked with dissociative disorders?
الإجابة
Severe trauma or stress, though diagnosis requires careful assessment and isn't inferred from trauma alone.
البطاقة ٦٨٧
السؤال
Hypomanic episode?
الإجابة
A noticeable period of elevated or irritable mood and increased energy that is less severe and impairing than mania.
البطاقة ٦٨٨
السؤال
Generalized anxiety disorder?
الإجابة
Persistent, hard-to-control anxiety and worry across several areas of life.
البطاقة ٦٨٩
السؤال
Hoarding disorder?
الإجابة
Persistent difficulty discarding possessions, producing clutter that impairs the use of living spaces.
البطاقة ٦٩٠
السؤال
Best account of personality-disorder causes?
الإجابة
Biological dispositions and long-term social, cultural, learning, and cognitive influences can interact.
البطاقة ٦٩١
السؤال
Why can't one symptom establish a disorder?
الإجابة
Diagnosis depends on a broader pattern, duration, distress or impairment, context, and alternative explanations.
البطاقة ٦٩٢
السؤال
Persistent depressive disorder?
الإجابة
A chronic depressed mood with related symptoms lasting at least two years in adults or one year in children and adolescents.
البطاقة ٦٩٣
السؤال
Fidelity in therapy ethics?
الإجابة
Maintaining trust, responsibility, and professional commitments.
البطاقة ٦٩٤
السؤال
Systematic desensitization?
الإجابة
Gradual exposure to a fear hierarchy while practicing relaxation or another incompatible response.
البطاقة ٦٩٥
السؤال
Dream interpretation in psychodynamic therapy?
الإجابة
Exploring possible personal meanings and unconscious themes in dreams, not treating dreams as objective facts.
البطاقة ٦٩٦
السؤال
Dialectical behavior therapy?
الإجابة
A cognitive-behavioral approach that builds mindfulness, emotion regulation, distress tolerance, and relationship skills.
البطاقة ٦٩٧
السؤال
Integrity in therapy ethics?
الإجابة
Being honest and accurate in professional work.
البطاقة ٦٩٨
السؤال
Aversion therapy?
الإجابة
Pairing an unwanted behavior with an unpleasant stimulus to reduce the behavior.
البطاقة ٦٩٩
السؤال
Tardive dyskinesia?
الإجابة
A movement disorder that can occur as a serious side effect of long-term antipsychotic medication.
البطاقة ٧٠٠
السؤال
ECT versus TMS?
الإجابة
ECT induces a controlled seizure under anesthesia; TMS uses magnetic pulses without surgery. Both can treat selected conditions.
البطاقة ٧٠١
السؤال
Respect for rights and dignity?
الإجابة
Protecting autonomy, privacy, confidentiality, and fair treatment.
البطاقة ٧٠٢
السؤال
A clinic awards points for target behaviors, and clients exchange the points for privileges. Which method is this?
الإجابة
A token economy.
البطاقة ٧٠٣
السؤال
A therapist emphasizes empathy, genuineness, active listening, and unconditional positive regard. Which approach is this?
الإجابة
Person-centered therapy.
البطاقة ٧٠٤
السؤال
What can hypnosis treat, and what can't it reliably do?
الإجابة
It can help some pain and anxiety; it can't reliably recover accurate memories or produce true age regression.
البطاقة ٧٠٥
السؤال
Medication and psychotherapy outperform either alone for some conditions. Best conclusion?
الإجابة
Combined treatment can be useful for some clients, but the best plan depends on the condition and individual evidence.

Workload	Errors
Low	2
High	8

Condition	Mean minutes
Assigned topic	34
Chosen topic	47

٧٠٥ بطاقات