Flashcards Open Source App — Five-Unit Psychology Course Review

このデッキのカード

1. カード 1

   質問

   Nature in the nature–nurture question?

   回答

   Inherited biological influences on behavior and mental processes.

2. カード 2

   質問

   Central nervous system?

   回答

   The brain and spinal cord, which process information and coordinate responses.

3. カード 3

   質問

   Main role of the spinal cord?

   回答

   It carries messages between brain and body and organizes some reflexes.

4. カード 4

   質問

   Scores are 4, 6, 8, 10. What is the mean?

   回答

   7, found by dividing the total of 28 by 4 scores.

5. カード 5

   質問

   Nurture in the nature–nurture question?

   回答

   Environmental influences, such as family, culture, education, and experience.

6. カード 6

   質問

   Peripheral nervous system?

   回答

   The nerves that connect the central nervous system with the rest of the body.

7. カード 7

   質問

   Reflex arc?

   回答

   A rapid neural pathway that can produce a response through the spinal cord before conscious brain processing.

8. カード 8

   質問

   Reflex times are 180, 190, 210, 260, 410 milliseconds. What is the median?

   回答

   210 milliseconds, the middle score after ordering the five values.

9. カード 9

   質問

   Heritability?

   回答

   The proportion of variation in a trait within a population that is associated with genetic differences. It doesn't describe one person's trait.

10. カード 10

    質問

    Autonomic nervous system?

    回答

    The peripheral division that regulates involuntary functions of glands and internal organs.

11. カード 11

    質問

    Evolutionary perspective on behavior?

    回答

    It asks how natural selection may have favored psychological traits that helped survival or reproduction.

12. カード 12

    質問

    Why is eugenics scientifically and ethically invalid?

    回答

    It misuses heredity claims to rank people and justify coercion, while ignoring environmental influence, human rights, and the complexity of traits.

13. カード 13

    質問

    Why isn't behavior explained by genes or environment alone?

    回答

    They interact. A biological tendency can be strengthened, weakened, or redirected by experience.

14. カード 14

    質問

    Researchers compare a trait across biological relatives who share different amounts of DNA. Which method is this?

    回答

    A family study; twin comparisons are one example, but shared environments still limit causal conclusions.

15. カード 15

    質問

    Natural selection?

    回答

    Traits that support survival or reproduction can become more common across generations.

16. カード 16

    質問

    Somatic nervous system?

    回答

    The peripheral division that carries sensory information and controls voluntary skeletal-muscle movement.

17. カード 17

    質問

    Sensory neurons?

    回答

    They carry incoming information from sensory receptors toward the central nervous system.

18. カード 18

    質問

    Which design compares adoptees with both biological and adoptive relatives?

    回答

    An adoption study, used to separate some hereditary and environmental similarities.

19. カード 19

    質問

    Twins show a strong trait correlation. What keeps this result from proving genetic causation?

    回答

    Correlation doesn't isolate genes from shared environments or other confounding variables.

20. カード 20

    質問

    Sympathetic nervous system?

    回答

    The autonomic division that mobilizes energy during challenge or threat.

21. カード 21

    質問

    Evidence shows a genetic risk predicts an outcome only under chronic stress. Best claim?

    回答

    The outcome reflects a gene–environment interaction, not a purely genetic effect.

22. カード 22

    質問

    Motor neurons?

    回答

    They carry outgoing commands from the central nervous system to muscles or glands.

23. カード 23

    質問

    Sleep duration and stress are correlated. What directionality problem limits a causal conclusion?

    回答

    The result cannot show whether less sleep raises stress, stress reduces sleep, or both directions operate.

24. カード 24

    質問

    Parasympathetic nervous system?

    回答

    The autonomic division that calms the body and supports rest, digestion, and recovery.

25. カード 25

    質問

    Resting potential?

    回答

    The neuron's stable negative charge when it isn't firing, maintained by unequal ion concentrations across the membrane.

26. カード 26

    質問

    Interneurons?

    回答

    Neurons within the central nervous system that process information and connect other neurons.

27. カード 27

    質問

    Adrenaline's behavioral role?

    回答

    It helps mobilize the body during arousal and the fight-or-flight response.

28. カード 28

    質問

    Frontal lobes?

    回答

    Planning, judgment, impulse control, working memory, voluntary movement, and aspects of speech.

29. カード 29

    質問

    Neural threshold?

    回答

    The minimum stimulation needed to trigger an action potential.

30. カード 30

    質問

    Corpus callosum?

    回答

    The large fiber tract that carries information between the cerebral hemispheres.

31. カード 31

    質問

    Leptin's role in eating?

    回答

    It signals stored energy and helps reduce hunger.

32. カード 32

    質問

    Temporal lobes?

    回答

    Auditory processing, language comprehension, memory, and object recognition.

33. カード 33

    質問

    Depolarization during an action potential?

    回答

    Positive ions enter the neuron, making the membrane charge less negative and then briefly positive.

34. カード 34

    質問

    Dopamine's major psychological functions?

    回答

    Movement, motivation, reward learning, attention, and reinforcement.

35. カード 35

    質問

    Ghrelin's role in eating?

    回答

    It helps stimulate hunger.

36. カード 36

    質問

    Drug agonist?

    回答

    A substance that increases a neurotransmitter's effect by activating its receptor or supporting its action.

37. カード 37

    質問

    Action potential?

    回答

    A brief electrical impulse that travels along a neuron after threshold is reached.

38. カード 38

    質問

    Reuptake?

    回答

    The sending neuron reabsorbs neurotransmitter from the synapse after release.

39. カード 39

    質問

    Serotonin's major psychological functions?

    回答

    Mood, sleep, appetite, and arousal regulation.

40. カード 40

    質問

    Glutamate's major psychological functions?

    回答

    It is the brain's main excitatory neurotransmitter and supports learning and memory.

41. カード 41

    質問

    Refractory period?

    回答

    A short recovery interval after firing when the neuron resets and can't immediately produce another full action potential.

42. カード 42

    質問

    Melatonin's role?

    回答

    It helps regulate circadian timing and promotes sleepiness in darkness.

43. カード 43

    質問

    Drug antagonist?

    回答

    A substance that blocks or reduces a neurotransmitter's effect at its receptor.

44. カード 44

    質問

    Stimulants?

    回答

    Psychoactive drugs that increase central nervous system activity and alertness.

45. カード 45

    質問

    Drug tolerance?

    回答

    A reduced response after repeated use, so a larger dose may be needed for the same effect.

46. カード 46

    質問

    Damage to myelin slows messages in the central nervous system. Which disorder illustrates this problem?

    回答

    Multiple sclerosis.

47. カード 47

    質問

    All-or-none principle?

    回答

    A neuron fires a full action potential once threshold is reached; stronger input changes firing rate, not impulse size.

48. カード 48

    質問

    Norepinephrine's major psychological functions?

    回答

    Alertness, arousal, attention, and the stress response.

49. カード 49

    質問

    GABA's major psychological function?

    回答

    It is the brain's main inhibitory neurotransmitter and reduces neural activity.

50. カード 50

    質問

    Oxytocin's behavioral role?

    回答

    It supports social bonding and also contributes to childbirth and lactation.

51. カード 51

    質問

    Reuptake inhibitor?

    回答

    A drug that keeps more neurotransmitter in the synapse by slowing reabsorption.

52. カード 52

    質問

    Depressants?

    回答

    Psychoactive drugs that reduce central nervous system activity.

53. カード 53

    質問

    Drug withdrawal?

    回答

    Physical or psychological symptoms that can appear when regular drug use is reduced or stopped.

54. カード 54

    質問

    Antibodies disrupt acetylcholine receptors at muscles, causing weakness. Which disorder illustrates this problem?

    回答

    Myasthenia gravis.

55. カード 55

    質問

    Glial cells?

    回答

    Cells that support, nourish, insulate, protect, and help regulate neurons and their connections.

56. カード 56

    質問

    Endorphins?

    回答

    Natural neurotransmitters that reduce pain and can produce pleasure.

57. カード 57

    質問

    Substance P?

    回答

    A neurotransmitter involved in pain signaling.

58. カード 58

    質問

    Acetylcholine's major functions?

    回答

    Muscle action, learning, memory, and attention.

59. カード 59

    質問

    Opioids?

    回答

    Drugs that bind to opioid receptors, reducing pain and often producing relaxation or euphoria.

60. カード 60

    質問

    Hallucinogens?

    回答

    Drugs that alter perception and can produce sensory experiences without matching external input.

61. カード 61

    質問

    Addiction?

    回答

    Compulsive substance use or behavior that continues despite harmful consequences and is difficult to control.

62. カード 62

    質問

    Parietal lobes?

    回答

    Body-sense processing, spatial attention, and integrating sensory information.

63. カード 63

    質問

    Consciousness?

    回答

    Awareness of internal experiences and the surrounding environment.

64. カード 64

    質問

    Circadian rhythm?

    回答

    A roughly 24-hour biological cycle that helps regulate sleep and wakefulness.

65. カード 65

    質問

    Damage causes slow, effortful speech with relatively preserved comprehension. Likely region?

    回答

    Broca's area, usually in the left frontal lobe.

66. カード 66

    質問

    Occipital lobes?

    回答

    Primary cortical processing of visual information.

67. カード 67

    質問

    What does split-brain research reveal?

    回答

    When the corpus callosum is severed, the hemispheres can process some information independently.

68. カード 68

    質問

    How does the suprachiasmatic nucleus regulate circadian rhythm?

    回答

    It uses light information from the eyes to coordinate the body's roughly 24-hour clock.

69. カード 69

    質問

    NREM-1 sleep?

    回答

    The light transition into sleep, sometimes accompanied by hypnagogic sensations.

70. カード 70

    質問

    Motor cortex?

    回答

    A frontal-lobe strip that directs voluntary movement.

71. カード 71

    質問

    Damage causes fluent but nonsensical speech and poor comprehension. Likely region?

    回答

    Wernicke's area, usually in the left temporal lobe.

72. カード 72

    質問

    Brainstem's core function?

    回答

    It supports basic survival functions and connects the brain with the spinal cord.

73. カード 73

    質問

    NREM-2 sleep?

    回答

    A light sleep stage marked by sleep spindles and K-complexes.

74. カード 74

    質問

    Somatosensory cortex?

    回答

    A parietal-lobe strip that registers touch and body-position information.

75. カード 75

    質問

    Medulla's main functions?

    回答

    It regulates vital automatic functions such as breathing and heart rate.

76. カード 76

    質問

    Reticular activating system?

    回答

    A brainstem network involved in alertness, arousal, and the sleep–wake cycle.

77. カード 77

    質問

    NREM-3 sleep?

    回答

    Deep slow-wave sleep, associated with physical restoration and difficult awakening.

78. カード 78

    質問

    Cerebellum's main functions?

    回答

    Balance, coordinated movement, procedural learning, and timing.

79. カード 79

    質問

    Thalamus?

    回答

    A relay that directs most sensory information to the cerebral cortex and helps regulate alertness.

80. カード 80

    質問

    Hypothalamus?

    回答

    It helps regulate homeostasis, hunger, thirst, temperature, sexual behavior, and endocrine activity.

81. カード 81

    質問

    REM sleep?

    回答

    A stage with vivid dreaming, rapid eye movements, active brain patterns, and skeletal-muscle paralysis.

82. カード 82

    質問

    Why is the pituitary called a master gland?

    回答

    Its hormones influence other endocrine glands, under the hypothalamus's control.

83. カード 83

    質問

    Amygdala?

    回答

    A limbic structure involved in processing emotion, threat, and emotional learning.

84. カード 84

    質問

    Hippocampus?

    回答

    A limbic structure essential for forming new explicit memories and spatial memory.

85. カード 85

    質問

    How does sleep change across a typical night?

    回答

    NREM and REM repeat in cycles; REM periods generally lengthen toward morning.

86. カード 86

    質問

    Contralateral brain control?

    回答

    Each cerebral hemisphere mainly receives sensory input from and controls movement on the opposite side of the body.

87. カード 87

    質問

    What does an EEG measure?

    回答

    Electrical activity recorded from the scalp, with strong timing information but limited spatial precision.

88. カード 88

    質問

    Reward-center activity?

    回答

    Activity in neural reward pathways can reinforce behaviors that predict desirable outcomes.

89. カード 89

    質問

    Neuroplasticity?

    回答

    The nervous system's ability to change its organization or function through experience, learning, or injury.

90. カード 90

    質問

    Which method shows brain activity changing during a task?

    回答

    A functional brain-imaging method, such as fMRI or PET, rather than a structural scan alone.

91. カード 91

    質問

    A patient loses a function after damage to one brain region. What is the cautious conclusion?

    回答

    The region contributes to the function, but the behavior may depend on a wider network.

92. カード 92

    質問

    Insomnia?

    回答

    Persistent difficulty falling asleep, staying asleep, or obtaining restorative sleep.

93. カード 93

    質問

    How do wavelength and amplitude shape sound?

    回答

    Wavelength relates to frequency and perceived pitch; amplitude relates to intensity and perceived loudness.

94. カード 94

    質問

    Absolute threshold?

    回答

    The minimum stimulation detected 50% of the time.

95. カード 95

    質問

    Activation-synthesis view of dreams?

    回答

    The brain builds a story while interpreting internally generated neural activity during sleep.

96. カード 96

    質問

    Narcolepsy?

    回答

    A disorder involving sudden sleep attacks and abnormal entry into REM sleep.

97. カード 97

    質問

    Why can jet lag disrupt sleep?

    回答

    The internal circadian clock is temporarily out of sync with the new light–dark schedule.

98. カード 98

    質問

    Difference threshold?

    回答

    The smallest change between stimuli detected 50% of the time.

99. カード 99

    質問

    Consolidation view of dreams?

    回答

    Dreaming may reflect the brain organizing and integrating recent memories.

100. カード 100

     質問

     REM sleep behavior disorder?

     回答

     Loss of normal REM muscle paralysis, allowing a person to act out dreams.

101. カード 101

     質問

     Why can rotating shift work impair sleep?

     回答

     Frequent schedule changes force the circadian system to keep readjusting.

102. カード 102

     質問

     Weber's law?

     回答

     The noticeable difference between two stimuli is a constant proportion of the original intensity.

103. カード 103

     質問

     Two supported functions of sleep?

     回答

     Memory consolidation and restoration of resources used during waking activity.

104. カード 104

     質問

     Sleep apnea?

     回答

     Repeated breathing interruptions during sleep that fragment sleep and reduce oxygen.

105. カード 105

     質問

     REM rebound?

     回答

     A temporary increase in REM sleep after a period of REM deprivation.

106. カード 106

     質問

     Signal detection theory?

     回答

     Detection depends on stimulus strength plus expectations, experience, motivation, and alertness.

107. カード 107

     質問

     Sensory transduction?

     回答

     Sensory receptors convert physical energy into neural signals.

108. カード 108

     質問

     Vestibular sense?

     回答

     The sense of balance and head movement, supported by structures in the inner ear.

109. カード 109

     質問

     Somnambulism?

     回答

     Sleepwalking, which most often occurs during deep NREM sleep.

110. カード 110

     質問

     Why is there a blind spot in each eye?

     回答

     The optic nerve leaves the retina at a point with no rods or cones.

111. カード 111

     質問

     What begins visual transduction?

     回答

     Retinal receptors convert light into neural signals that travel toward the brain.

112. カード 112

     質問

     A sound reaches the left ear slightly earlier and louder than the right. Where will it seem to originate?

     回答

     From the left, because the brain compares arrival-time and intensity differences between the ears.

113. カード 113

     質問

     Why are taste and smell called chemical senses?

     回答

     Their receptors respond to molecules from food or the air.

114. カード 114

     質問

     Accommodation in vision?

     回答

     The lens changes shape to focus near or distant objects on the retina.

115. カード 115

     質問

     Cones?

     回答

     Retinal receptors that support color vision and fine detail in brighter light.

116. カード 116

     質問

     What begins auditory transduction?

     回答

     Hair cells in the inner ear convert sound-driven vibration into neural signals.

117. カード 117

     質問

     How does trichromatic processing explain color vision?

     回答

     Three cone types respond most strongly to different wavelength ranges, and their combined activity produces color experience.

118. カード 118

     質問

     How is smell unusual among the senses?

     回答

     Olfactory signals reach cortical and limbic areas without first passing through the thalamic relay used by other senses.

119. カード 119

     質問

     Kinesthesia?

     回答

     The sense of body-part position and movement, based on signals from muscles, tendons, and joints.

120. カード 120

     質問

     Place coding versus frequency coding in hearing?

     回答

     Place coding links pitch to where the cochlea responds most; frequency coding links pitch to neural firing rate.

121. カード 121

     質問

     Nearsightedness?

     回答

     Nearby objects are clear, but distant images focus in front of the retina and look blurred.

122. カード 122

     質問

     Pheromones?

     回答

     Chemical signals released by one organism that can affect the behavior or physiology of others of the same species.

123. カード 123

     質問

     Touch receptors for warmth and cold fire together strongly. What sensation can result?

     回答

     A hot or burning sensation, showing that temperature experience combines receptor signals.

124. カード 124

     質問

     Volley theory of pitch?

     回答

     Groups of auditory neurons alternate firing so their combined rate can represent pitches too fast for one neuron alone.

125. カード 125

     質問

     Farsightedness?

     回答

     Distant vision is clearer, while nearby images tend to focus behind the retina and look blurred.

126. カード 126

     質問

     Six taste qualities named in the course?

     回答

     Sweet, sour, salty, bitter, umami, and oleogustus (fat taste).

127. カード 127

     質問

     Phantom-limb sensation?

     回答

     Feeling pain, touch, or movement in a limb that is no longer present because the nervous system still represents it.

128. カード 128

     質問

     Sensory interaction?

     回答

     One sense changes how another is experienced, as smell influences flavor.

129. カード 129

     質問

     What causes most color-vision deficiency?

     回答

     One or more cone types are missing or function differently, reducing discrimination among some colors.

130. カード 130

     質問

     Prosopagnosia?

     回答

     Difficulty recognizing familiar faces despite otherwise usable vision.

131. カード 131

     質問

     Rods?

     回答

     Retinal receptors sensitive to dim light and peripheral movement, without color detail.

132. カード 132

     質問

     How does opponent processing explain afterimages?

     回答

     Color is coded in opposing pairs, so tiring one response can make its opponent briefly dominate.

133. カード 133

     質問

     Conductive versus sensorineural hearing loss?

     回答

     Conductive loss blocks sound transmission; sensorineural loss damages hair cells or auditory pathways.

134. カード 134

     質問

     Nontasters, medium tasters, and supertasters?

     回答

     Categories describing lower, typical, and unusually high sensitivity to taste, especially bitterness.

135. カード 135

     質問

     What do the semicircular canals detect?

     回答

     Rotational head movement, helping the vestibular system maintain balance.

136. カード 136

     質問

     Synesthesia?

     回答

     Stimulation of one sense consistently and automatically produces an additional sensory experience.

137. カード 137

     質問

     Dichromatism versus monochromatism?

     回答

     Dichromatism uses two functioning cone systems; monochromatism uses one or none, producing far less color discrimination.

138. カード 138

     質問

     Blindsight?

     回答

     Responding to visual information without consciously seeing it, usually after damage to primary visual cortex.

139. カード 139

     質問

     Sensory adaptation?

     回答

     Reduced sensitivity after constant, unchanging stimulation.

140. カード 140

     質問

     Gate-control view of pain?

     回答

     Spinal and brain processes can amplify or reduce pain signals before conscious experience.

141. カード 141

     質問

     Bottom-up processing?

     回答

     Building a perception from incoming sensory details.

142. カード 142

     質問

     Concept?

     回答

     A mental category used to group similar objects, events, ideas, or people.

143. カード 143

     質問

     Fixation in problem solving?

     回答

     Getting stuck on one way of representing or solving a problem.

144. カード 144

     質問

     Algorithm?

     回答

     A step-by-step method that guarantees a solution when followed correctly, though it may be slow.

145. カード 145

     質問

     Top-down processing?

     回答

     Using expectations, context, and prior knowledge to interpret sensory input.

146. カード 146

     質問

     Confirmation bias?

     回答

     Seeking or interpreting evidence in ways that support an existing belief.

147. カード 147

     質問

     Retinal disparity?

     回答

     The difference between each eye's image; greater disparity usually signals a nearer object.

148. カード 148

     質問

     Heuristic?

     回答

     A quick rule of thumb that saves effort but can produce errors.

149. カード 149

     質問

     Selective attention?

     回答

     Focusing conscious awareness on one part of the available sensory input.

150. カード 150

     質問

     Figure–ground organization?

     回答

     Separating the object of attention from its background.

151. カード 151

     質問

     Convergence as a depth cue?

     回答

     The inward turning of the eyes increases as an object gets closer.

152. カード 152

     質問

     Representativeness heuristic?

     回答

     Judging category membership by resemblance to a prototype while neglecting other information.

153. カード 153

     質問

     Missing a visible event while attention is elsewhere?

     回答

     Inattentional blindness.

154. カード 154

     質問

     Gestalt proximity principle?

     回答

     Elements close together tend to be perceived as a group.

155. カード 155

     質問

     Two familiar objects cast different-sized retinal images. Which looks farther away?

     回答

     The one with the smaller retinal image, using the monocular cue of relative size.

156. カード 156

     質問

     Cocktail-party effect?

     回答

     The ability to focus on one conversation while still noticing personally important information in the background.

157. カード 157

     質問

     Failing to notice an obvious change in a scene?

     回答

     Change blindness.

158. カード 158

     質問

     Gestalt similarity principle?

     回答

     Elements that look alike tend to be grouped together.

159. カード 159

     質問

     Parallel lines seem to meet in the distance. Which depth cue?

     回答

     Linear perspective.

160. カード 160

     質問

     Perceptual constancy?

     回答

     Seeing an object's size, shape, or color as stable despite changing sensory images.

161. カード 161

     質問

     Perceptual set?

     回答

     A readiness to perceive something in a particular way because of expectations or context.

162. カード 162

     質問

     Gestalt closure principle?

     回答

     The mind fills gaps to perceive a complete object.

163. カード 163

     質問

     One object blocks part of another. Which seems closer?

     回答

     The blocking object, using interposition.

164. カード 164

     質問

     Apparent motion?

     回答

     The perception of movement created by rapidly presented stationary images or lights.

165. カード 165

     質問

     Availability heuristic?

     回答

     Judging likelihood by how easily examples come to mind.

166. カード 166

     質問

     Divergent thinking?

     回答

     Generating many varied, original possibilities.

167. カード 167

     質問

     A hazy object appears farther away than a sharp object. Which depth cue?

     回答

     Relative clarity.

168. カード 168

     質問

     Prototype?

     回答

     A mental image of the most typical example of a category.

169. カード 169

     質問

     Ignoring how common an event is while focusing on a vivid description?

     回答

     Base-rate neglect, often tied to the representativeness heuristic.

170. カード 170

     質問

     Convergent thinking?

     回答

     Narrowing possibilities to the single best answer.

171. カード 171

     質問

     A textured surface looks denser and finer with distance. Which depth cue?

     回答

     Texture gradient.

172. カード 172

     質問

     Belief perseverance?

     回答

     Holding a belief even after the evidence that created it has been discredited.

173. カード 173

     質問

     Explicit memory?

     回答

     Conscious memory for facts and experiences.

174. カード 174

     質問

     Three stores in the multi-store model?

     回答

     Sensory memory, short-term memory, and long-term memory.

175. カード 175

     質問

     Seeing an object only in its usual role?

     回答

     Functional fixedness.

176. カード 176

     質問

     Mental set?

     回答

     Using a familiar solution strategy even when a different approach would work better.

177. カード 177

     質問

     Episodic memory?

     回答

     Explicit memory for personally experienced events.

178. カード 178

     質問

     Working memory?

     回答

     A limited-capacity system that briefly holds and actively manipulates information.

179. カード 179

     質問

     Insight?

     回答

     A sudden realization of a problem's solution.

180. カード 180

     質問

     Framing effect?

     回答

     Choices change when the same information is worded or presented differently.

181. カード 181

     質問

     Implicit memory?

     回答

     Learning that affects behavior without deliberate conscious recall.

182. カード 182

     質問

     Overconfidence bias?

     回答

     Being more certain about one's judgments than accuracy warrants.

183. カード 183

     質問

     Anchoring bias?

     回答

     Relying too heavily on the first number or idea encountered.

184. カード 184

     質問

     Schema in thinking?

     回答

     A mental framework that organizes knowledge and guides interpretation.

185. カード 185

     質問

     Procedural memory?

     回答

     Implicit memory for skills and habits.

186. カード 186

     質問

     Gambler's fallacy?

     回答

     The mistaken belief that a random outcome becomes due after a streak, even when trials are independent.

187. カード 187

     質問

     Sunk-cost fallacy?

     回答

     Continuing because of past investment even when future costs outweigh future benefits.

188. カード 188

     質問

     Executive functions?

     回答

     Mental processes that support planning, inhibition, flexible switching, and goal-directed control.

189. カード 189

     質問

     How can priming affect judgment?

     回答

     Recent exposure can make related ideas more accessible and subtly shape a later response.

190. カード 190

     質問

     Central executive in working memory?

     回答

     The attention-control component that coordinates verbal and visual-spatial processing.

191. カード 191

     質問

     Serial-position effect?

     回答

     People tend to recall the first and last items in a list better than the middle.

192. カード 192

     質問

     Semantic memory?

     回答

     Explicit memory for facts, meanings, and general knowledge.

193. カード 193

     質問

     Levels-of-processing principle?

     回答

     Deeper semantic processing usually produces stronger memory than shallow structural or sound-based processing.

194. カード 194

     質問

     Automatic processing?

     回答

     Encoding information with little conscious effort, such as space, time, or well-practiced meanings.

195. カード 195

     質問

     Maintenance rehearsal?

     回答

     Repeating information to keep it active, usually without adding much meaning.

196. カード 196

     質問

     Prospective memory?

     回答

     Remembering to carry out an intended action in the future.

197. カード 197

     質問

     Primacy effect?

     回答

     Better memory for early list items, often because they receive more rehearsal.

198. カード 198

     質問

     Long-term memory?

     回答

     A relatively durable, large-capacity store of knowledge, experiences, and skills.

199. カード 199

     質問

     Highly superior autobiographical memory?

     回答

     An unusual ability to recall extensive personal events and dates with exceptional accuracy.

200. カード 200

     質問

     Effortful processing?

     回答

     Encoding that requires attention and deliberate work.

201. カード 201

     質問

     Elaborative rehearsal?

     回答

     Linking new information to meaning, examples, or existing knowledge.

202. カード 202

     質問

     Memory consolidation?

     回答

     The process that stabilizes a memory after learning.

203. カード 203

     質問

     Recency effect?

     回答

     Better immediate memory for the last list items because they remain active.

204. カード 204

     質問

     Spacing effect?

     回答

     Learning lasts longer when study is distributed over time rather than massed into one session.

205. カード 205

     質問

     Testing effect?

     回答

     Actively retrieving information improves later memory more than rereading alone.

206. カード 206

     質問

     Chunking?

     回答

     Organizing separate pieces of information into meaningful units.

207. カード 207

     質問

     Mnemonic?

     回答

     A structured memory aid that links material to an image, phrase, location, or pattern.

208. カード 208

     質問

     Why organize material into a hierarchy?

     回答

     Grouping broad ideas above narrower details makes relationships easier to encode and retrieve.

209. カード 209

     質問

     How can a schema help encoding?

     回答

     It supplies an existing framework that organizes and connects new information.

210. カード 210

     質問

     Students reread or practice retrieval, then take the same delayed test. What are the independent and dependent variables?

     回答

     The study method is independent; delayed-test performance is dependent.

211. カード 211

     質問

     Iconic memory?

     回答

     A very brief visual sensory memory.

212. カード 212

     質問

     Recall?

     回答

     Retrieving information with few external cues, as in an essay question.

213. カード 213

     質問

     Retrieval cue?

     回答

     A stimulus linked to a memory that helps bring it to awareness.

214. カード 214

     質問

     Encoding-specificity principle?

     回答

     Retrieval improves when cues at recall match cues present during encoding.

215. カード 215

     質問

     Context-dependent memory?

     回答

     Recall can improve in the same external environment where learning occurred.

216. カード 216

     質問

     Does the hippocampus permanently store every explicit memory?

     回答

     No. It helps form and consolidate new explicit memories, which later depend on distributed cortical networks.

217. カード 217

     質問

     Echoic memory?

     回答

     A brief auditory sensory memory that lasts longer than iconic memory.

218. カード 218

     質問

     Anterograde amnesia?

     回答

     Difficulty forming new long-term explicit memories after the onset of damage or illness.

219. カード 219

     質問

     Phonological loop?

     回答

     The working-memory component that briefly holds and rehearses verbal or sound information.

220. カード 220

     質問

     Cerebellum's memory role?

     回答

     It supports procedural learning and some classically conditioned responses.

221. カード 221

     質問

     Why is short-term memory described as limited?

     回答

     It can hold only a small amount of information without rehearsal or chunking.

222. カード 222

     質問

     Retrograde amnesia?

     回答

     Loss of memories formed before the onset of damage or illness.

223. カード 223

     質問

     Why are events tied to your own life often easier to remember?

     回答

     The self-reference effect makes information connected to oneself more memorable.

224. カード 224

     質問

     How can the amygdala affect memory?

     回答

     Emotional arousal can strengthen consolidation of emotionally significant events.

225. カード 225

     質問

     Visuospatial sketchpad?

     回答

     The working-memory component that holds and manipulates visual and spatial information.

226. カード 226

     質問

     Long-term potentiation?

     回答

     A lasting increase in synaptic efficiency after repeated activation, associated with learning and memory.

227. カード 227

     質問

     Infantile amnesia?

     回答

     The typical inability to recall autobiographical events from the first few years of life.

228. カード 228

     質問

     Alzheimer's disease?

     回答

     A progressive brain disorder that gradually impairs memory, reasoning, and daily functioning.

229. カード 229

     質問

     Scores are 2, 4, 4, 7, 9. What are the mode and range?

     回答

     The mode is 4, and the range is 7 because 9 - 2 = 7.

230. カード 230

     質問

     Recognition?

     回答

     Identifying previously learned information, as in selecting a familiar answer.

231. カード 231

     質問

     Why is memory called reconstructive?

     回答

     Recall rebuilds an event from stored details, schemas, expectations, and later information.

232. カード 232

     質問

     Storage decay?

     回答

     A memory trace weakens over time, especially when it isn't used.

233. カード 233

     質問

     State-dependent memory?

     回答

     Recall can improve when a person's internal state matches the state during learning.

234. カード 234

     質問

     Relearning?

     回答

     Measuring memory by how much faster material is learned again.

235. カード 235

     質問

     Misinformation effect?

     回答

     Misleading information after an event changes memory of the event.

236. カード 236

     質問

     A student recalls more in the original classroom. What claim is supported?

     回答

     Matching environmental cues can aid retrieval; the setting didn't necessarily improve storage.

237. カード 237

     質問

     Mood-congruent memory?

     回答

     A current mood makes similarly toned memories easier to retrieve.

238. カード 238

     質問

     Priming?

     回答

     Exposure to one stimulus unconsciously influences the response to a later stimulus.

239. カード 239

     質問

     Tip-of-the-tongue state?

     回答

     A temporary retrieval failure accompanied by a feeling that the answer is known.

240. カード 240

     質問

     Why does retrieval practice strengthen memory?

     回答

     Each successful retrieval reinforces access routes and reveals what still needs study.

241. カード 241

     質問

     Class A scores cluster near 80; Class B has the same mean but scores spread from 50 to 100. Which class has the larger standard deviation?

     回答

     Class B, because its scores vary farther from the mean.

242. カード 242

     質問

     Metacognition?

     回答

     Monitoring and regulating one's own thinking and learning.

243. カード 243

     質問

     Source amnesia?

     回答

     Remembering information but misremembering where it came from.

244. カード 244

     質問

     Test standardization?

     回答

     Administering a test consistently and establishing norms from a representative sample.

245. カード 245

     質問

     Reliability?

     回答

     The consistency of a measurement across time, items, or scorers.

246. カード 246

     質問

     Stereotype threat?

     回答

     Concern about confirming a negative group stereotype can interfere with performance.

247. カード 247

     質問

     General intelligence, or g?

     回答

     A broad mental ability proposed to contribute to performance across many cognitive tasks.

248. カード 248

     質問

     Encoding failure?

     回答

     Information never entered memory well enough to be stored, often because attention was weak.

249. カード 249

     質問

     Validity?

     回答

     The extent to which evidence supports the interpretation and use of a test score.

250. カード 250

     質問

     Proactive interference?

     回答

     Older learning disrupts recall of newer information.

251. カード 251

     質問

     Imagination inflation?

     回答

     Repeatedly imagining an event increases confidence that it really happened.

252. カード 252

     質問

     A forgetting curve drops sharply soon after learning, then flattens. What does this pattern show?

     回答

     Forgetting is fastest soon after learning and slows over time.

253. カード 253

     質問

     Retrieval failure?

     回答

     Stored information is temporarily inaccessible because effective cues are missing.

254. カード 254

     質問

     Retroactive interference?

     回答

     Newer learning disrupts recall of older information.

255. カード 255

     質問

     A confident witness recalls a detail introduced after the event. Best conclusion?

     回答

     Confidence doesn't guarantee accuracy; post-event misinformation may have altered the memory.

256. カード 256

     質問

     Repression in psychodynamic theory?

     回答

     The proposed unconscious blocking of distressing memories or impulses from awareness.

257. カード 257

     質問

     Flashbulb memory?

     回答

     A vivid memory for learning about an emotional event; confidence can remain high even when details change.

258. カード 258

     質問

     A study defines memory accuracy as the number of 20 words recalled after 24 hours. What design element is this?

     回答

     An operational definition of memory accuracy.

259. カード 259

     質問

     A score is at the 84th percentile. What does that mean?

     回答

     It is equal to or higher than about 84% of scores in the reference group.

260. カード 260

     質問

     Stereotype lift?

     回答

     A performance boost that can occur when a negative stereotype targets another group, making one's own group seem comparatively advantaged.

261. カード 261

     質問

     Achievement test?

     回答

     An assessment of knowledge or skills already learned.

262. カード 262

     質問

     Construct validity?

     回答

     How well evidence shows that a test measures the psychological construct it claims to measure.

263. カード 263

     質問

     Test–retest reliability?

     回答

     Consistency of scores when the same assessment is administered to the same people at different times.

264. カード 264

     質問

     Why can't historical group differences on intelligence tests justify discriminatory policy?

     回答

     Scores reflect testing conditions and social opportunity as well as measured ability; group averages don't define individuals or prove biological causation.

265. カード 265

     質問

     Multiple-abilities view of intelligence?

     回答

     Intelligence includes several partly distinct abilities rather than one general capacity alone.

266. カード 266

     質問

     Aptitude test?

     回答

     An assessment intended to predict capacity to learn or perform in the future.

267. カード 267

     質問

     Traditional IQ formula?

     回答

     Mental age divided by chronological age, multiplied by 100. Modern tests use age-based norms instead.

268. カード 268

     質問

     Predictive validity?

     回答

     How well a test score forecasts a relevant later outcome.

269. カード 269

     質問

     What does a normal score distribution look like?

     回答

     Most scores cluster near the mean, with fewer scores toward either extreme.

270. カード 270

     質問

     Split-half reliability?

     回答

     Consistency between two comparable halves of the same assessment.

271. カード 271

     質問

     Two groups have different average test scores. What conclusion is not justified?

     回答

     That every member differs or that biology caused the gap; within-group variation and social conditions matter.

272. カード 272

     質問

     Flynn effect?

     回答

     Average intelligence-test scores have risen across generations in many populations, pointing to environmental influence.

273. カード 273

     質問

     A student treats mistakes as information and changes study strategies. Which mindset does this show?

     回答

     A growth mindset; a fixed mindset treats ability as largely unchangeable.

274. カード 274

     質問

     Continuous versus stage development?

     回答

     Continuous views emphasize gradual change; stage views describe distinct qualitative shifts.

275. カード 275

     質問

     How can prenatal environment affect later development?

     回答

     Nutrition, stress, illness, and substance exposure can influence physical and neural development before birth.

276. カード 276

     質問

     Teratogen?

     回答

     An environmental agent that can disrupt prenatal development, with effects depending on dose, timing, and susceptibility.

277. カード 277

     質問

     Maturation?

     回答

     Biologically guided growth processes that unfold in a generally predictable sequence.

278. カード 278

     質問

     Stability–change question in development?

     回答

     It asks which traits persist across life and which change with age or experience.

279. カード 279

     質問

     A researcher predicts that students who sleep at least eight hours will recall more words than students who sleep less. Why is this hypothesis falsifiable?

     回答

     The groups and recall outcome can be measured, so evidence could show that the predicted difference does not occur.

280. カード 280

     質問

     Which method best tests whether a new study routine causes higher quiz scores?

     回答

     An experiment that manipulates the routine and randomly assigns participants, because it can support a causal conclusion.

281. カード 281

     質問

     Why do motor milestones follow a common order but different timing?

     回答

     Maturation shapes the sequence, while biology and experience influence pace.

282. カード 282

     質問

     Fine versus gross motor skills?

     回答

     Fine skills use small, precise movements; gross skills use larger muscle groups and whole-body movement.

283. カード 283

     質問

     Why are infant reflexes useful to researchers?

     回答

     Their presence and change can indicate early nervous-system development.

284. カード 284

     質問

     What did the visual-cliff procedure test?

     回答

     It tested whether infants would cross an apparent drop, providing evidence about depth perception and the influence of locomotor experience.

285. カード 285

     質問

     Puberty?

     回答

     The period of sexual maturation driven by hormonal and physical changes.

286. カード 286

     質問

     Sensitive period?

     回答

     A developmental window when experience has an especially strong effect, though learning may remain possible later.

287. カード 287

     質問

     What physical pattern commonly marks the start of adolescence?

     回答

     A puberty-related growth spurt, with rapid increases in height and weight.

288. カード 288

     質問

     Primary versus secondary sex characteristics?

     回答

     Primary characteristics are reproductive organs and functions; secondary characteristics are puberty-related traits not directly required for reproduction.

289. カード 289

     質問

     Which method best measures the relationship between adolescents' sleep duration and mood without assigning sleep schedules?

     回答

     A correlational study, because both variables are measured rather than manipulated.

290. カード 290

     質問

     Older adults score lower than younger adults in one same-time comparison. Which design and alternative explanation limit an aging claim?

     回答

     The study is cross-sectional, and a cohort effect could explain the difference because the age groups grew up under different conditions.

291. カード 291

     質問

     Researchers test the same people yearly from ages 10 to 20. Which design is this, and what participant-loss risk should they track?

     回答

     A longitudinal design; attrition can bias the results if those who leave differ from those who remain.

292. カード 292

     質問

     Menarche?

     回答

     The first menstrual period.

293. カード 293

     質問

     Which method allows an intensive investigation of one person with an exceptionally rare developmental condition?

     回答

     A case study, which provides depth but may not generalize to a wider population.

294. カード 294

     質問

     About what percentage of scores in a normal distribution lie within one standard deviation of the mean?

     回答

     About 68%.

295. カード 295

     質問

     A prenatal exposure correlates with later difficulty. What limits a causal claim?

     回答

     Other parental, health, and environmental variables may account for the association.

296. カード 296

     質問

     Spermarche?

     回答

     The first ejaculation.

297. カード 297

     質問

     Which method combines results from many studies to estimate an overall effect?

     回答

     A meta-analysis, which statistically synthesizes findings across studies.

298. カード 298

     質問

     Imprinting?

     回答

     A rapid form of early learning in which some young animals form an attachment during a sensitive period.

299. カード 299

     質問

     Why can adolescent risk-taking increase?

     回答

     Reward systems develop earlier than the prefrontal control systems used for planning and inhibition.

300. カード 300

     質問

     Menopause?

     回答

     The natural end of menstrual cycles, diagnosed after 12 consecutive months without menstruation.

301. カード 301

     質問

     Which method records children's playground behavior without directing or changing it?

     回答

     Naturalistic observation.

302. カード 302

     質問

     How do mobility, flexibility, and reaction time typically change across later adulthood?

     回答

     They tend to decline gradually, although health, activity, and individual differences affect the pace.

303. カード 303

     質問

     Gender identity?

     回答

     A person's internal sense of their gender.

304. カード 304

     質問

     Gender role?

     回答

     A culture's expectations for behavior associated with gender.

305. カード 305

     質問

     Sex versus gender?

     回答

     Sex refers to biological traits; gender refers to identities, roles, and social meanings.

306. カード 306

     質問

     Common sensory change in later adulthood?

     回答

     Vision and hearing sensitivity often decline, though the degree varies widely.

307. カード 307

     質問

     Sexual orientation?

     回答

     A pattern of romantic or sexual attraction; it is distinct from gender identity.

308. カード 308

     質問

     Gender schema?

     回答

     A mental framework that organizes information and expectations about gender.

309. カード 309

     質問

     Best broad view of gender development?

     回答

     Biological, cognitive, social, and cultural influences interact.

310. カード 310

     質問

     Does normal aging cause uniform cognitive decline?

     回答

     No. Processing speed may slow, while knowledge and expertise can remain stable or grow.

311. カード 311

     質問

     Why shouldn't variation in gender identity or sexual orientation be treated as a disorder?

     回答

     Variation alone isn't evidence of dysfunction; distress often reflects stigma or discrimination rather than identity.

312. カード 312

     質問

     Schema in cognitive development?

     回答

     A mental framework used to organize and interpret experience.

313. カード 313

     質問

     Sensorimotor stage?

     回答

     Infants learn through sensory experience and action and develop object permanence.

314. カード 314

     質問

     Preoperational stage?

     回答

     Young children use symbols and language but often lack conservation and show egocentric thinking.

315. カード 315

     質問

     Assimilation?

     回答

     Fitting new information into an existing schema.

316. カード 316

     質問

     A learner cannot solve a puzzle alone but succeeds with a teacher's hints. Where is the task?

     回答

     In the learner's zone of proximal development.

317. カード 317

     質問

     Animism in preoperational thought?

     回答

     Attributing life, feelings, or intentions to inanimate objects.

318. カード 318

     質問

     Concrete operational stage?

     回答

     Children reason logically about concrete events and understand conservation.

319. カード 319

     質問

     Accommodation?

     回答

     Changing a schema when new information doesn't fit it.

320. カード 320

     質問

     Reversibility in cognitive development?

     回答

     Understanding that an operation can be mentally undone, a skill associated with concrete operational thought.

321. カード 321

     質問

     How can social learning shape gender expression?

     回答

     People observe models and receive reinforcement or punishment for gender-related behavior.

322. カード 322

     質問

     A child calls a zebra a horse because it fits an existing animal schema. Which process?

     回答

     Assimilation.

323. カード 323

     質問

     Language?

     回答

     A shared, rule-governed system of symbols used to communicate and generate ideas.

324. カード 324

     質問

     Cooing stage?

     回答

     Early vowel-like sounds that typically appear before babbling.

325. カード 325

     質問

     Babbling stage?

     回答

     Infants produce repeated speech-like sounds before meaningful words.

326. カード 326

     質問

     One-word stage?

     回答

     A child uses single words to express whole ideas.

327. カード 327

     質問

     Grammar?

     回答

     A language's system of rules for combining and interpreting symbols.

328. カード 328

     質問

     A child assumes everyone can see the picture visible only from the child's side of a model. Which limitation does this show?

     回答

     Egocentrism: difficulty taking another person's visual perspective.

329. カード 329

     質問

     Crystallized intelligence across adulthood?

     回答

     Accumulated knowledge and verbal skills often remain stable or increase.

330. カード 330

     質問

     A child revises an animal schema after learning that zebras aren't horses. Which process?

     回答

     Accommodation.

331. カード 331

     質問

     A teacher first models each step, then removes hints as the learner improves. What support strategy is this?

     回答

     Scaffolding.

332. カード 332

     質問

     A child predicts that someone will search where that person last saw a toy, not where the toy really is. Which ability does this show?

     回答

     Theory of mind: recognizing that another person can hold a different belief.

333. カード 333

     質問

     Fluid intelligence across adulthood?

     回答

     Speedy reasoning with novel problems often peaks earlier and may decline gradually.

334. カード 334

     質問

     An infant searches for a toy after it is covered by a cloth. Which ability does this show?

     回答

     Object permanence: understanding that the toy still exists when it cannot be seen.

335. カード 335

     質問

     Water is poured from a short glass into a taller, narrower glass, and a child says there is more water. Which concept is missing?

     回答

     Conservation: understanding that quantity remains the same despite a change in appearance.

336. カード 336

     質問

     Formal operational stage?

     回答

     Adolescents and adults can reason abstractly and test hypothetical possibilities.

337. カード 337

     質問

     Dementia?

     回答

     A broad syndrome involving cognitive decline that interferes with daily life; it is not an inevitable part of normal aging.

338. カード 338

     質問

     Phoneme?

     回答

     The smallest distinctive sound unit in a language.

339. カード 339

     質問

     Bronfenbrenner's ecological systems view?

     回答

     Development reflects interactions between a person and nested social environments over time.

340. カード 340

     質問

     Temperament?

     回答

     Early, biologically influenced patterns of emotional reactivity and self-regulation.

341. カード 341

     質問

     Attachment?

     回答

     An enduring emotional bond that supports proximity and security.

342. カード 342

     質問

     Erikson's infancy conflict?

     回答

     Trust versus mistrust: dependable care supports a basic sense of security.

343. カード 343

     質問

     Microsystem?

     回答

     Immediate settings and relationships, such as family, school, peers, and work.

344. カード 344

     質問

     Erikson's toddler conflict?

     回答

     Autonomy versus shame and doubt: supported self-control builds independence.

345. カード 345

     質問

     Erikson's early-childhood conflict?

     回答

     Initiative versus guilt: directing activities and plans supports purpose.

346. カード 346

     質問

     Erikson's school-age conflict?

     回答

     Industry versus inferiority: mastering valued skills supports competence.

347. カード 347

     質問

     Mesosystem?

     回答

     Connections among a person's microsystems, such as communication between family and school.

348. カード 348

     質問

     Erikson's adolescent conflict?

     回答

     Identity versus role confusion: exploring and integrating roles supports identity.

349. カード 349

     質問

     Erikson's young-adult conflict?

     回答

     Intimacy versus isolation: forming close, committed relationships.

350. カード 350

     質問

     Erikson's middle-adult conflict?

     回答

     Generativity versus stagnation: contributing to others and the next generation.

351. カード 351

     質問

     Exosystem?

     回答

     Settings that affect a person indirectly, such as a caregiver's workplace.

352. カード 352

     質問

     Morpheme?

     回答

     The smallest unit that carries meaning.

353. カード 353

     質問

     Telegraphic speech?

     回答

     Early short phrases that contain essential words while omitting smaller grammatical words.

     

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354. カード 354

     質問

     How do nonverbal gestures support language development?

     回答

     Pointing, gaze, expression, and movement communicate meaning before and alongside spoken words.

355. カード 355

     質問

     Macrosystem?

     回答

     The wider culture, values, laws, customs, and economic conditions surrounding development.

356. カード 356

     質問

     Semantics?

     回答

     The meanings of words and sentences.

357. カード 357

     質問

     A child says “goed” after learning the usual past-tense pattern. What is this?

     回答

     Overgeneralization: applying a language rule where an exception is required.

358. カード 358

     質問

     What does a sensitive period for language imply?

     回答

     Early exposure supports fluent development, though later learning remains possible.

359. カード 359

     質問

     Does language completely determine thought?

     回答

     No. Language can shape attention and categorization, but thought also occurs without words.

360. カード 360

     質問

     Syntax?

     回答

     Rules for arranging words into phrases and sentences.

361. カード 361

     質問

     A child explores while a caregiver is present, seeks contact at reunion, and is readily comforted. Which attachment pattern fits?

     回答

     Secure attachment.

362. カード 362

     質問

     How does the behavioral perspective explain behavior?

     回答

     It focuses on observable behavior learned through conditioning, reinforcement, punishment, and environmental cues.

363. カード 363

     質問

     Authoritative parenting?

     回答

     High warmth with clear, consistent expectations and age-appropriate autonomy.

364. カード 364

     質問

     Identity achievement?

     回答

     A person makes commitments after meaningful exploration.

365. カード 365

     質問

     Avoidant attachment pattern?

     回答

     The child shows little contact-seeking and tends to avoid or ignore the caregiver at reunion.

366. カード 366

     質問

     Classical conditioning?

     回答

     Learning that one stimulus predicts another, so a previously neutral stimulus elicits a response.

367. カード 367

     質問

     Unconditioned stimulus?

     回答

     A stimulus that naturally produces a response without prior learning.

368. カード 368

     質問

     Unconditioned response?

     回答

     The unlearned response naturally produced by an unconditioned stimulus.

369. カード 369

     質問

     Conditioned stimulus?

     回答

     A previously neutral stimulus that elicits a learned response after association.

370. カード 370

     質問

     Conditioned response?

     回答

     The learned response to a conditioned stimulus.

371. カード 371

     質問

     Acquisition in classical conditioning?

     回答

     The initial learning period when the neutral stimulus becomes associated with the unconditioned stimulus.

372. カード 372

     質問

     During acquisition, when should the conditioned stimulus usually appear relative to the unconditioned stimulus?

     回答

     The conditioned stimulus should appear shortly before the unconditioned stimulus so it predicts what comes next.

373. カード 373

     質問

     Authoritarian parenting?

     回答

     Low warmth with strict control and little discussion.

374. カード 374

     質問

     Identity diffusion?

     回答

     A person has neither actively explored alternatives nor made firm commitments.

375. カード 375

     質問

     Extinction in classical conditioning?

     回答

     The conditioned response weakens when the conditioned stimulus repeatedly appears without the unconditioned stimulus.

376. カード 376

     質問

     Anxious-resistant attachment pattern?

     回答

     The child seeks contact but remains distressed or resists comfort at reunion.

377. カード 377

     質問

     Permissive parenting?

     回答

     High warmth with few demands or limits.

378. カード 378

     質問

     Parallel play?

     回答

     Young children play beside one another with similar materials but little direct coordination.

379. カード 379

     質問

     Imaginary audience?

     回答

     An adolescent's belief that other people are constantly noticing and evaluating them.

380. カード 380

     質問

     Identity foreclosure?

     回答

     A person commits without exploring alternatives, often adopting others' expectations.

381. カード 381

     質問

     Disorganized attachment pattern?

     回答

     The child shows contradictory, confused, or fearful behavior without a consistent reunion strategy.

382. カード 382

     質問

     Neglectful parenting?

     回答

     Low warmth and low control or involvement.

383. カード 383

     質問

     Chronosystem?

     回答

     Life transitions and historical changes that alter development over time.

384. カード 384

     質問

     Why is pretend play developmentally useful?

     回答

     It lets children practice symbols, roles, perspective-taking, and social rules.

385. カード 385

     質問

     Personal fable?

     回答

     An adolescent's sense that their experiences are unique and that ordinary risks may not apply to them.

386. カード 386

     質問

     Identity moratorium?

     回答

     A person is actively exploring alternatives without yet making a stable commitment.

387. カード 387

     質問

     Best claim about adverse childhood experiences?

     回答

     They can raise later health and relationship risks, but they don't determine an individual's outcome.

388. カード 388

     質問

     Separation anxiety in infancy?

     回答

     Distress when a familiar caregiver leaves; it is common during part of typical development.

389. カード 389

     質問

     What did infant-monkey research suggest about attachment?

     回答

     Comforting physical contact can be a stronger attachment cue than food alone.

390. カード 390

     質問

     Which research method does the Strange Situation use to assess attachment behavior?

     回答

     Structured observation: researchers record behavior during standardized separations and reunions.

391. カード 391

     質問

     Emerging adulthood?

     回答

     A transitional period, often from the late teens through the twenties, marked by identity exploration and changing roles.

392. カード 392

     質問

     Social clock?

     回答

     Culturally shaped expectations about when major life events should occur.

393. カード 393

     質問

     Erikson's later-adult conflict?

     回答

     Integrity versus despair: evaluating life with acceptance rather than regret.

394. カード 394

     質問

     Possible selves?

     回答

     Mental images of who a person might become, hopes to become, or fears becoming.

395. カード 395

     質問

     Stimulus generalization?

     回答

     Stimuli similar to the conditioned stimulus also trigger the conditioned response.

396. カード 396

     質問

     Operant conditioning?

     回答

     Learning in which consequences change the future frequency of voluntary behavior.

397. カード 397

     質問

     Law of effect?

     回答

     Behaviors followed by satisfying consequences become more likely, while behaviors followed by unpleasant consequences become less likely.

398. カード 398

     質問

     Spontaneous recovery?

     回答

     An extinguished conditioned response briefly returns after a rest period.

399. カード 399

     質問

     Stimulus discrimination?

     回答

     Learning to respond differently to the conditioned stimulus and similar stimuli.

400. カード 400

     質問

     Reinforcement?

     回答

     Any consequence that increases a behavior.

401. カード 401

     質問

     Higher-order conditioning?

     回答

     An established conditioned stimulus helps a new neutral stimulus become conditioned without direct pairing with the original unconditioned stimulus.

402. カード 402

     質問

     Counterconditioning?

     回答

     Replacing an unwanted conditioned response by pairing the trigger with a new, incompatible response.

403. カード 403

     質問

     Habituation?

     回答

     A reduced response after repeated exposure to a harmless, unchanged stimulus.

404. カード 404

     質問

     Punishment?

     回答

     Any consequence that decreases a behavior.

405. カード 405

     質問

     Partial reinforcement?

     回答

     Reinforcing only some responses; learning is slower, but behavior resists extinction.

406. カード 406

     質問

     Why can taste aversion form after one delayed pairing?

     回答

     Biological preparedness makes certain food–illness associations especially easy to learn.

407. カード 407

     質問

     Most conditioning trials take 2–6 attempts, but one participant needs 24. What shape will the trial-count distribution likely have?

     回答

     It will be right-skewed because the unusually high value stretches the upper tail.

408. カード 408

     質問

     Participants may encounter distressing images in a learning study. What must an institutional review board evaluate before approval?

     回答

     Whether the scientific value justifies the risks and whether safeguards reduce those risks to an acceptable level.

409. カード 409

     質問

     Fixed-ratio schedule?

     回答

     Reinforcement follows a set number of responses.

410. カード 410

     質問

     Observational learning?

     回答

     Learning by watching others and the consequences they receive.

411. カード 411

     質問

     A teacher adds praise after completed homework, and homework completion increases. Which consequence is this?

     回答

     Positive reinforcement.

412. カード 412

     質問

     Primary reinforcer?

     回答

     A naturally rewarding stimulus tied to biological needs, such as food when hungry.

413. カード 413

     質問

     Variable-ratio schedule?

     回答

     Reinforcement follows an unpredictable number of responses, producing persistent responding.

414. カード 414

     質問

     Modeling?

     回答

     Performing a behavior after observing it in another person.

415. カード 415

     質問

     Which response pattern is typical of a fixed-ratio schedule?

     回答

     A high response rate followed by a brief pause after each reward.

416. カード 416

     質問

     Fastening a seat belt stops an unpleasant alarm, making future fastening more likely. Which consequence is this?

     回答

     Negative reinforcement.

417. カード 417

     質問

     Conditioned reinforcer?

     回答

     A learned reward that gains value through association, such as money or praise.

418. カード 418

     質問

     A child sees a classmate praised for sharing and then shares more often. Which process may explain the change?

     回答

     Vicarious reinforcement.

419. カード 419

     質問

     Fixed-interval schedule?

     回答

     The first response after a set amount of time is reinforced.

420. カード 420

     質問

     Which response pattern is typical of a variable-ratio schedule?

     回答

     A high, steady response rate with little or no pause after rewards.

421. カード 421

     質問

     A driver receives a fine, and speeding decreases. Which consequence is this?

     回答

     Positive punishment.

422. カード 422

     質問

     Shaping?

     回答

     Reinforcing successive approximations toward a target behavior.

423. カード 423

     質問

     Extinction in operant conditioning?

     回答

     A behavior weakens when it no longer produces reinforcement.

424. カード 424

     質問

     Variable-interval schedule?

     回答

     The first response after an unpredictable amount of time is reinforced.

425. カード 425

     質問

     A teenager loses gaming access, and missed curfews decrease. Which consequence is this?

     回答

     Negative punishment.

426. カード 426

     質問

     Learned helplessness?

     回答

     After repeated uncontrollable negative events, a person or animal stops trying to escape even when escape becomes possible.

427. カード 427

     質問

     Continuous reinforcement?

     回答

     Reinforcing every occurrence of a behavior; learning is fast, but extinction is also fast.

428. カード 428

     質問

     A response record rises slowly after each reward, then accelerates as the next fixed time approaches. Which schedule produced this scalloped pattern?

     回答

     A fixed-interval schedule.

429. カード 429

     質問

     Discriminative stimulus?

     回答

     A cue that signals when a particular response is likely to be reinforced.

430. カード 430

     質問

     Operant generalization versus discrimination?

     回答

     Generalization spreads a learned response to similar cues; discrimination limits it to cues that signal reinforcement.

431. カード 431

     質問

     Instinctive drift?

     回答

     A learned behavior shifts toward an animal's biologically predisposed behavior.

432. カード 432

     質問

     Which response pattern is typical of a variable-interval schedule?

     回答

     A steady, moderate response rate because reinforcement can become available at unpredictable times.

433. カード 433

     質問

     How can superstitious behavior develop through operant conditioning?

     回答

     A coincidental reward can reinforce a behavior that didn't actually cause the outcome.

434. カード 434

     質問

     How does similarity to a model affect observational learning?

     回答

     Observers are often more likely to attend to and imitate models they see as similar or relevant.

435. カード 435

     質問

     Vicarious conditioning?

     回答

     Learning an emotional response by observing another person's reaction to a stimulus.

436. カード 436

     質問

     A rat makes 12, 13, 11, and 12 responses in four equal time blocks, with rewards delivered at unpredictable times. Which schedule best fits this steady pattern?

     回答

     A variable-interval schedule.

437. カード 437

     質問

     Children imitate a rewarded model more than a punished model. Supported claim?

     回答

     Observed consequences can influence whether learned behavior is performed.

438. カード 438

     質問

     Why randomly assign children to watch either an aggressive or a calm model?

     回答

     Random assignment helps balance preexisting differences between groups, strengthening a causal inference about the model's effect.

439. カード 439

     質問

     Latent learning?

     回答

     Learning that occurs without obvious reinforcement and appears later when there is an incentive.

440. カード 440

     質問

     Cognitive map?

     回答

     A mental representation of the layout of an environment.

441. カード 441

     質問

     Insight learning?

     回答

     A sudden cognitive solution without visible trial-and-error steps.

442. カード 442

     質問

     Biological preparedness?

     回答

     An evolved readiness to learn some associations more easily than others.

443. カード 443

     質問

     What can mirror-neuron activity show?

     回答

     Some neural systems respond during both action and observation, though this alone doesn't explain all imitation or empathy.

444. カード 444

     質問

     Attribution?

     回答

     An explanation for the cause of a person's behavior or an event.

445. カード 445

     質問

     Attitude?

     回答

     An evaluation of a person, object, issue, or behavior, involving beliefs, feelings, and action tendencies.

446. カード 446

     質問

     Upward social comparison?

     回答

     Comparing oneself with someone doing better, which can inspire improvement or reduce satisfaction.

447. カード 447

     質問

     Optimistic explanatory style?

     回答

     Explaining setbacks as temporary, specific, and changeable rather than permanent and global.

448. カード 448

     質問

     Situational attribution?

     回答

     Explaining behavior through external circumstances or social context.

449. カード 449

     質問

     A person who values health keeps vaping and feels pressure to change either the behavior or the belief. What is this discomfort?

     回答

     Cognitive dissonance.

450. カード 450

     質問

     Downward social comparison?

     回答

     Comparing oneself with someone doing worse, which can protect self-evaluation.

451. カード 451

     質問

     Internal locus of control?

     回答

     The belief that one's actions strongly influence outcomes.

452. カード 452

     質問

     Dispositional attribution?

     回答

     Explaining behavior through internal traits, motives, or abilities.

453. カード 453

     質問

     Pessimistic explanatory style?

     回答

     Explaining setbacks as lasting, widespread, and rooted in personal failure.

454. カード 454

     質問

     Relative deprivation?

     回答

     Feeling disadvantaged by comparing one's situation with the situation one believes others have.

455. カード 455

     質問

     External locus of control?

     回答

     The belief that outcomes mainly depend on luck, fate, or powerful outside forces.

456. カード 456

     質問

     Fundamental attribution error?

     回答

     Overestimating personality and underestimating the situation when explaining someone else's behavior.

457. カード 457

     質問

     Halo effect?

     回答

     One favorable trait shapes an overly positive overall judgment of a person.

458. カード 458

     質問

     Self-fulfilling prophecy?

     回答

     An expectation changes behavior in ways that help make the expected outcome occur.

459. カード 459

     質問

     Mere-exposure effect?

     回答

     Repeated exposure to a neutral stimulus can increase liking.

460. カード 460

     質問

     A person blames their own lateness on traffic but another person's lateness on carelessness. Which attribution pattern is this?

     回答

     The actor–observer difference.

461. カード 461

     質問

     A voter compares evidence and checks the logic of a policy argument. Which persuasion route is being used?

     回答

     The central route.

462. カード 462

     質問

     Effort justification?

     回答

     Valuing an outcome more after investing substantial effort in it, which reduces dissonance.

463. カード 463

     質問

     Stereotype?

     回答

     A generalized belief about members of a group.

464. カード 464

     質問

     A student credits skill for an A but blames an unfair test for an F. Which bias does this show?

     回答

     Self-serving bias.

465. カード 465

     質問

     A shopper favors an unfamiliar product because a popular celebrity endorses it. Which persuasion route is being used?

     回答

     The peripheral route.

466. カード 466

     質問

     Someone praises a dull task for a tiny reward, then reports liking it more. Which dissonance principle fits?

     回答

     Insufficient justification: the small reward provides too little external explanation, so attitude change reduces dissonance.

467. カード 467

     質問

     Prejudice?

     回答

     An unjustified attitude or emotional response toward a group and its members.

468. カード 468

     質問

     The same 40 workers complete equal-length tasks under both workloads:

     Workload	Errors
     Low	2
     High	8

     Which attribution is better supported?

     回答

     A situational attribution is better supported: with the same workers and equal exposure, the high-workload condition has more errors, though the table alone doesn't prove causation.

469. カード 469

     質問

     Why does source credibility affect persuasion?

     回答

     People are more likely to accept a message from a source seen as knowledgeable and trustworthy.

470. カード 470

     質問

     Conformity?

     回答

     Adjusting behavior or beliefs to match a group.

471. カード 471

     質問

     Several witnesses each wait for someone else to help during an emergency. Which effect is this?

     回答

     The bystander effect.

472. カード 472

     質問

     Diffusion of responsibility?

     回答

     Each person feels less personally responsible when others are available to act.

473. カード 473

     質問

     How can taking on a role affect attitude?

     回答

     Repeated role-consistent behavior can gradually shift beliefs and self-perception.

474. カード 474

     質問

     In-group bias?

     回答

     Favoring one's own group over other groups.

475. カード 475

     質問

     After agreeing to display a small safety sticker, a resident later agrees to place a large sign. Which technique is this?

     回答

     The foot-in-the-door technique.

476. カード 476

     質問

     A researcher recruits the first 60 students leaving one school cafeteria. What sampling method is this, and what is the main limit?

     回答

     Convenience sampling; the sample may not represent the school's students or a broader population as well as a random sample would.

477. カード 477

     質問

     When do attitudes best predict behavior?

     回答

     When the attitude is specific, accessible, personally important, and social pressure is limited.

478. カード 478

     質問

     Discrimination?

     回答

     Unjustified behavior toward people because of group membership.

479. カード 479

     質問

     Out-group homogeneity effect?

     回答

     Perceiving members of another group as more alike than members of one's own group.

480. カード 480

     質問

     After refusing an extreme request, a person agrees to a smaller related request. Which technique is this?

     回答

     The door-in-the-face technique.

481. カード 481

     質問

     A study finds r = +0.72 between attention to message evidence and attitude change. What does the coefficient show?

     回答

     A strong positive association: greater attention tends to accompany greater attitude change, but the correlation does not establish causation.

482. カード 482

     質問

     Persuasion ratings cluster near 2 and 9 on a 10-point scale, with few scores near 5. What distribution shape does this suggest?

     回答

     A bimodal distribution, with two distinct peaks.

483. カード 483

     質問

     Just-world belief?

     回答

     The assumption that people generally get what they deserve, which can encourage victim blaming.

484. カード 484

     質問

     Implicit attitude?

     回答

     An automatic evaluation that can affect responses without deliberate awareness.

485. カード 485

     質問

     Ethnocentrism?

     回答

     Judging other cultures by the standards of one's own culture and treating one's own as superior.

486. カード 486

     質問

     How do confirmation bias and belief perseverance maintain an attitude?

     回答

     People may favor supporting evidence and retain the belief even after its original support is discredited.

487. カード 487

     質問

     Normative social influence?

     回答

     Conforming to gain approval or avoid rejection.

488. カード 488

     質問

     Psychodynamic view of personality?

     回答

     Unconscious conflicts and motives influence personality and behavior.

489. カード 489

     質問

     Norm of reciprocity?

     回答

     The expectation that people should return help or favors.

490. カード 490

     質問

     Individualism?

     回答

     A cultural orientation that gives greater priority to personal goals, autonomy, and individual identity.

491. カード 491

     質問

     Informational social influence?

     回答

     Conforming because the group is treated as a source of accurate information.

492. カード 492

     質問

     Id?

     回答

     The psychodynamic component driven by immediate gratification and the pleasure principle.

493. カード 493

     質問

     Altruism?

     回答

     Helping intended to benefit another person without requiring a personal reward.

494. カード 494

     質問

     Social norm?

     回答

     A group's shared expectation about acceptable behavior.

495. カード 495

     質問

     What tends to increase conformity?

     回答

     Unanimity, group size up to a point, public responses, ambiguity, and group importance.

496. カード 496

     質問

     Ego?

     回答

     The psychodynamic component that manages reality and balances competing demands.

497. カード 497

     質問

     A skilled runner improves before a crowd, but a beginner makes more errors. Which group effect fits?

     回答

     Social facilitation: an audience strengthens the dominant response.

498. カード 498

     質問

     Collectivism?

     回答

     A cultural orientation that gives greater priority to group goals, interdependence, and shared identity.

499. カード 499

     質問

     Obedience?

     回答

     Changing behavior in response to a direct command from an authority.

500. カード 500

     質問

     Superego?

     回答

     The psychodynamic component representing internalized moral standards.

501. カード 501

     質問

     A person continues acting as if a painful diagnosis cannot be real despite clear evidence. Which defense mechanism fits?

     回答

     Denial.

502. カード 502

     質問

     Social-responsibility norm?

     回答

     The expectation that people should help those who depend on them or need assistance.

503. カード 503

     質問

     How does proximity affect attraction?

     回答

     Frequent contact creates opportunities for familiarity and relationship development.

504. カード 504

     質問

     What tends to increase obedience?

     回答

     A legitimate nearby authority, gradual escalation, institutional support, and distance from the affected person.

505. カード 505

     質問

     After an argument with a supervisor, an employee snaps at a roommate. Which defense mechanism fits?

     回答

     Displacement.

506. カード 506

     質問

     Social loafing?

     回答

     Exerting less effort when individual contributions to a group task aren't identifiable.

507. カード 507

     質問

     Multiculturalism?

     回答

     Recognizing and supporting distinct cultural identities within a shared society or institution.

508. カード 508

     質問

     How does similarity affect attraction?

     回答

     Shared attitudes, values, and interests often increase liking.

509. カード 509

     質問

     A person who feels hostile insists that everyone else is hostile toward them. Which defense mechanism fits?

     回答

     Projection.

510. カード 510

     質問

     Helping falls as group size rises. Best explanation?

     回答

     Responsibility diffuses across more bystanders; the result doesn't show that groups eliminate empathy.

511. カード 511

     質問

     Deindividuation?

     回答

     Reduced self-awareness and restraint in an anonymous or arousing group setting.

512. カード 512

     質問

     Group polarization?

     回答

     Discussion strengthens the group's initial average tendency.

513. カード 513

     質問

     After being rejected, an applicant says the opportunity was worthless anyway. Which defense mechanism fits?

     回答

     Rationalization.

514. カード 514

     質問

     A cohesive team ignores warnings and pressures doubters to preserve agreement. Which process is this?

     回答

     Groupthink.

515. カード 515

     質問

     Pluralistic ignorance?

     回答

     People privately reject a norm or perceive danger but assume others' calm behavior means it is accepted or safe.

516. カード 516

     質問

     Social trap?

     回答

     Individuals pursue short-term self-interest that produces a worse long-term outcome for everyone.

517. カード 517

     質問

     Reaction formation?

     回答

     Expressing the opposite of an unacceptable impulse.

518. カード 518

     質問

     Superordinate goal?

     回答

     A shared goal that competing groups can reach only through cooperation.

519. カード 519

     質問

     False-consensus effect?

     回答

     Overestimating how widely other people share one's beliefs or behavior.

520. カード 520

     質問

     Industrial-organizational psychology?

     回答

     Applying psychological science to work, organizations, hiring, performance, and employee well-being.

521. カード 521

     質問

     Repression?

     回答

     Unconsciously blocking distressing thoughts or impulses from awareness.

522. カード 522

     質問

     Burnout?

     回答

     Work-related exhaustion, detachment or cynicism, and reduced sense of effectiveness after chronic stress.

523. カード 523

     質問

     Unconditional positive regard?

     回答

     Acceptance and respect that aren't dependent on meeting another person's conditions.

524. カード 524

     質問

     Trait?

     回答

     A relatively stable tendency to think, feel, or behave in a certain way.

525. カード 525

     質問

     Regression as a defense mechanism?

     回答

     Reverting to an earlier pattern of behavior when facing stress or conflict.

526. カード 526

     質問

     Reciprocal determinism?

     回答

     Behavior, personal factors, and environment influence one another.

527. カード 527

     質問

     Self-efficacy?

     回答

     Belief in one's ability to perform a specific task or meet a challenge.

528. カード 528

     質問

     Self-concept in humanistic theory?

     回答

     A person's organized understanding of who they are.

529. カード 529

     質問

     Sublimation as a defense mechanism?

     回答

     Redirecting an unacceptable impulse into a socially valued activity.

530. カード 530

     質問

     A person seeks novel ideas, art, and unfamiliar experiences. Which Big Five trait is most evident?

     回答

     Openness.

531. カード 531

     質問

     Personality inventory?

     回答

     A standardized self-report questionnaire used to measure traits or patterns.

532. カード 532

     質問

     Self-actualizing tendency?

     回答

     The humanistic idea that people are motivated to grow and fulfill their capacities.

533. カード 533

     質問

     Self-esteem?

     回答

     A person's overall evaluation of their worth or value.

534. カード 534

     質問

     Instinct in motivation research?

     回答

     An innate, typically fixed behavior pattern in nonhuman animals; this framework doesn't classify human motivation as instinctual.

535. カード 535

     質問

     A person plans carefully, meets deadlines, and follows through. Which Big Five trait is most evident?

     回答

     Conscientiousness.

536. カード 536

     質問

     Projective test?

     回答

     An ambiguous stimulus used to invite responses thought to reflect inner themes; reliability and validity can be limited.

537. カード 537

     質問

     How does factor analysis help trait research?

     回答

     It identifies clusters of correlated behaviors or questionnaire items that may reflect broader traits.

538. カード 538

     質問

     Drive-reduction theory?

     回答

     A physiological need creates arousal that motivates behavior to restore balance.

539. カード 539

     質問

     A person is sociable, assertive, and energized by group interaction. Which Big Five trait is most evident?

     回答

     Extraversion.

540. カード 540

     質問

     Person–situation debate?

     回答

     It asks how much behavior reflects stable traits versus changing contexts.

541. カード 541

     質問

     A training study reports Cohen's d = 0.65 for improvement in self-efficacy. What does this statistic describe?

     回答

     The standardized size of the group difference; 0.65 is commonly interpreted as a moderate effect, not proof that the result will matter equally in every setting.

542. カード 542

     質問

     Homeostasis?

     回答

     The body's tendency to maintain a stable internal state.

543. カード 543

     質問

     Incentive theory?

     回答

     External rewards or goals pull behavior toward them.

544. カード 544

     質問

     Big Five agreeableness?

     回答

     Compassion, trust, and cooperativeness.

545. カード 545

     質問

     A student retakes a questionnaire after an unusually low self-efficacy score and scores closer to their usual level. What statistical tendency may explain part of the change?

     回答

     Regression toward the mean: an extreme score is often followed by a less extreme score because temporary influences are unlikely to repeat exactly.

546. カード 546

     質問

     A student must choose between two appealing internships. Which motivational conflict is this?

     回答

     An approach–approach conflict.

547. カード 547

     質問

     Arousal theory of motivation?

     回答

     People seek a personally suitable level of stimulation.

548. カード 548

     質問

     Big Five emotional stability?

     回答

     A tendency toward calm and resilience; it is the inverse of neuroticism.

549. カード 549

     質問

     What regulates hunger?

     回答

     Biological signals such as ghrelin and leptin interact with learning, culture, stress, and food cues.

550. カード 550

     質問

     Three broad components of emotion?

     回答

     Physiological arousal, expressive behavior, and conscious experience or appraisal.

551. カード 551

     質問

     Self-determination theory?

     回答

     Motivation grows when autonomy, competence, and relatedness are supported.

552. カード 552

     質問

     Emotion regulation?

     回答

     Processes used to influence which emotions arise, when they arise, and how they are expressed.

553. カード 553

     質問

     Sensation-seeking?

     回答

     A tendency to pursue novel, varied, or intense experiences, sometimes despite risk.

554. カード 554

     質問

     Cognitive appraisal in emotion?

     回答

     Interpreting what an event means for one's goals, safety, or well-being.

555. カード 555

     質問

     Intrinsic motivation?

     回答

     Doing an activity for its own interest or satisfaction.

556. カード 556

     質問

     Display rules?

     回答

     Cultural norms that shape when and how emotions are expressed.

557. カード 557

     質問

     Arousal and performance relationship?

     回答

     Moderate arousal often supports difficult tasks, while higher arousal can help simple or well-learned tasks.

558. カード 558

     質問

     A promotion offers higher pay but requires an unwanted move. Which motivational conflict is this?

     回答

     An approach–avoidance conflict.

559. カード 559

     質問

     Extrinsic motivation?

     回答

     Doing an activity for an external reward or to avoid punishment.

560. カード 560

     質問

     Achievement motivation?

     回答

     The drive to meet standards, master tasks, and pursue success.

561. カード 561

     質問

     Four sensation-seeking dimensions?

     回答

     Thrill and adventure seeking, experience seeking, disinhibition, and boredom susceptibility.

562. カード 562

     質問

     A person must either pay a fine or complete an unpleasant course. Which motivational conflict is this?

     回答

     An avoidance–avoidance conflict.

563. カード 563

     質問

     Overjustification effect?

     回答

     Expected external rewards can reduce intrinsic interest in an activity already enjoyed.

564. カード 564

     質問

     Belongingness motivation?

     回答

     The drive to form and maintain stable, positive relationships with other people.

565. カード 565

     質問

     Study time changed after students chose their own topic:

     Condition	Mean minutes
     Assigned topic	34
     Chosen topic	47

     What is the observed mean difference?

     回答

     13 minutes more in the chosen-topic condition; the table alone does not show whether the difference is statistically significant.

566. カード 566

     質問

     Facial-feedback effect?

     回答

     Facial expressions can influence the emotion a person experiences.

567. カード 567

     質問

     Can bodily arousal occur before conscious interpretation?

     回答

     Yes. Some emotional responses begin quickly, while later appraisal shapes the experience.

568. カード 568

     質問

     A speaker reframes a racing heart as readiness rather than danger. Which emotion-regulation strategy is this?

     回答

     Cognitive reappraisal.

569. カード 569

     質問

     Broaden-and-build view?

     回答

     Positive emotion can widen attention and action possibilities, helping build lasting resources.

570. カード 570

     質問

     Which emotions often appear across cultures?

     回答

     Anger, disgust, sadness, happiness, surprise, and fear, though findings on universality are mixed.

571. カード 571

     質問

     How can the same arousal become different emotions?

     回答

     Context and cognitive interpretation can label similar physiological arousal differently.

572. カード 572

     質問

     Expressive suppression?

     回答

     Inhibiting the outward display of emotion after it has arisen.

573. カード 573

     質問

     How does acute stress affect the body?

     回答

     It activates sympathetic and hormonal responses that mobilize energy for immediate demands.

574. カード 574

     質問

     Cultures differ in public emotional expression. What shouldn't be concluded?

     回答

     That people in one culture don't experience the emotion; display rules can alter expression.

575. カード 575

     質問

     In a medication study, neither participants nor outcome raters know who receives the active drug or an inactive pill. What two safeguards are present?

     回答

     A placebo control and double-blinding, which reduce expectancy effects and observer bias.

576. カード 576

     質問

     A scatterplot rises from lower left to upper right, with points close to a line. What relationship does it show?

     回答

     A strong positive correlation: higher values of one variable tend to occur with higher values of the other.

577. カード 577

     質問

     Health psychology?

     回答

     The study of how biological, psychological, and social factors affect health and illness.

578. カード 578

     質問

     Positive psychology?

     回答

     The scientific study of strengths, well-being, and conditions that help people and communities thrive.

579. カード 579

     質問

     Stress?

     回答

     The process of appraising and responding to events viewed as threatening or demanding.

580. カード 580

     質問

     A study records stress ratings from 1 to 10 and also collects open-ended descriptions. Which data are quantitative and which are qualitative?

     回答

     The numeric ratings are quantitative; the written descriptions are qualitative.

581. カード 581

     質問

     Why do sleep, exercise, and nutrition matter to health psychology?

     回答

     They are behaviors that interact with stress and biology to influence health outcomes.

582. カード 582

     質問

     Resilience?

     回答

     Adapting or recovering after adversity; it is a process, not a guarantee of being unaffected.

583. カード 583

     質問

     Stressor?

     回答

     An event or condition that challenges a person's ability to cope.

584. カード 584

     質問

     General adaptation syndrome?

     回答

     A three-phase pattern of alarm, resistance, and exhaustion under prolonged stress.

585. カード 585

     質問

     A worker makes a schedule and asks for resources to reduce a controllable workload. Which coping approach is this?

     回答

     Problem-focused coping.

586. カード 586

     質問

     A stress study uses nonhuman animals. What ethical duties apply?

     回答

     Researchers need scientific justification, humane care, the least possible pain and distress, and oversight by an institutional animal care and use committee.

587. カード 587

     質問

     A student first judges whether an upcoming exam threatens an important goal. Which appraisal is this?

     回答

     Primary appraisal.

588. カード 588

     質問

     What happens during the alarm phase of general adaptation syndrome?

     回答

     A fight, flight, or freeze response mobilizes resources when the stressor is first encountered.

589. カード 589

     質問

     How can major trauma and daily hassles both create stress?

     回答

     One can overwhelm through intensity, while repeated smaller demands can accumulate over time.

590. カード 590

     質問

     A person uses breathing and social support to manage feelings about an unchangeable loss. Which coping approach is this?

     回答

     Emotion-focused coping.

591. カード 591

     質問

     The student next considers available study time, tutoring, and coping options. Which appraisal is this?

     回答

     Secondary appraisal.

592. カード 592

     質問

     Why can prolonged exhaustion increase illness risk?

     回答

     Stress resources are depleted, and sustained physiological activation can weaken health and immune function.

593. カード 593

     質問

     Adverse childhood experiences?

     回答

     Potentially traumatic childhood conditions linked with higher later health risks, without determining any one person's outcome.

594. カード 594

     質問

     How can social support protect health?

     回答

     It provides practical help, belonging, perspective, and a buffer against stress.

595. カード 595

     質問

     Eustress versus distress?

     回答

     Eustress is experienced as motivating or manageable; distress is experienced as harmful or overwhelming.

596. カード 596

     質問

     Tend-and-befriend response?

     回答

     Coping with stress by caring for needs and seeking supportive connection, a pattern observed especially among women.

597. カード 597

     質問

     Two interviewees say, “After the setback, I adjusted my plan” and “I recovered and kept working toward my goal.” Which well-being concept appears in both qualitative responses?

     回答

     Resilience; both accounts describe adapting or recovering after adversity.

598. カード 598

     質問

     Biofeedback?

     回答

     Using real-time information about bodily activity to learn voluntary regulation of that activity.

599. カード 599

     質問

     How does perceived control affect stress?

     回答

     A sense of control often reduces stress, while uncontrollability can intensify it.

600. カード 600

     質問

     Psychoneuroimmunology?

     回答

     The study of interactions among psychological processes, the nervous system, hormones, and immune function.

601. カード 601

     質問

     Subjective well-being?

     回答

     A person's life satisfaction together with the balance of positive and negative emotion.

602. カード 602

     質問

     Psychological disorder?

     回答

     A clinically significant disturbance in thought, emotion, or behavior that causes distress or impairment.

603. カード 603

     質問

     How can gratitude practice affect well-being?

     回答

     Regularly noticing valued experiences can increase positive emotion for some people, though effects vary.

604. カード 604

     質問

     A school survey samples 120 students from a population of 1,800 enrolled students. What are the sample and population?

     回答

     The 120 respondents are the sample; all 1,800 enrolled students are the target population.

605. カード 605

     質問

     Signature strengths?

     回答

     Character strengths that are especially central and natural to a person and can be used deliberately.

606. カード 606

     質問

     Biopsychosocial model?

     回答

     Biological, psychological, and sociocultural factors interact in health and disorder.

607. カード 607

     質問

     Six broad virtue categories in positive psychology?

     回答

     Wisdom, courage, humanity, justice, temperance, and transcendence.

608. カード 608

     質問

     Posttraumatic growth?

     回答

     Positive psychological change that can develop through struggling with trauma or major stress; it doesn't erase harm.

609. カード 609

     質問

     An optional well-being survey is completed mostly by students who already attend wellness clubs. How does this affect generalizability?

     回答

     Self-selection creates sampling bias, so the results may not generalize to students with different interests or experiences.

610. カード 610

     質問

     A survey asks people to report how often they exercise. What limitation should the researcher consider?

     回答

     Self-report can be distorted by inaccurate memory, question wording, or socially desirable answers.

611. カード 611

     質問

     A treatment comparison reports p = .03 with a preset alpha of .05. Is the result statistically significant?

     回答

     Yes. Because .03 is below .05, the result is statistically significant, though that does not show the effect is large or important.

612. カード 612

     質問

     A striking well-being result appears in one small study. What should happen before confidence grows?

     回答

     Independent replication and critical peer review should test whether the finding is reliable and the methods support the claim.

613. カード 613

     質問

     Biological explanation of disorder?

     回答

     It focuses on genetic, neural, hormonal, or other physiological factors.

614. カード 614

     質問

     Attention-deficit/hyperactivity disorder?

     回答

     A neurodevelopmental disorder involving developmentally inappropriate inattention and/or hyperactivity-impulsivity that impairs functioning.

615. カード 615

     質問

     Purpose of the DSM?

     回答

     It supplies shared diagnostic categories and criteria for communication, research, and treatment planning.

616. カード 616

     質問

     What must informed consent explain before people join a psychology study?

     回答

     The study's general nature, foreseeable risks and benefits, confidentiality limits, voluntary participation, and the right to withdraw. Research with minors also generally requires guardian permission and the child's assent.

617. カード 617

     質問

     Behavioral explanation of disorder?

     回答

     It focuses on maladaptive responses learned through conditioning or observation.

618. カード 618

     質問

     Autism spectrum disorder?

     回答

     A neurodevelopmental disorder involving differences in social communication and restricted or repetitive behavior, with varied support needs.

619. カード 619

     質問

     Schizophrenia's broad symptom areas?

     回答

     Delusions, hallucinations, disorganized thought or speech, disorganized movement, and negative symptoms.

620. カード 620

     質問

     Major depressive disorder?

     回答

     A sustained depressive episode with mood, cognitive, physical, and motivational changes that impair functioning.

621. カード 621

     質問

     Specific phobia?

     回答

     Intense, persistent fear of a particular object or situation that leads to avoidance or distress.

622. カード 622

     質問

     Obsessive-compulsive disorder?

     回答

     Obsessions, compulsions, or both consume time or cause significant distress or impairment.

623. カード 623

     質問

     Dissociative amnesia?

     回答

     Inability to recall important autobiographical information, usually related to trauma or stress, beyond ordinary forgetting.

624. カード 624

     質問

     Bipolar I disorder?

     回答

     A bipolar disorder defined by at least one full manic episode, often with depressive episodes.

625. カード 625

     質問

     Posttraumatic stress disorder?

     回答

     Persistent intrusion, avoidance, negative mood or thinking, and heightened arousal after trauma exposure.

626. カード 626

     質問

     Anorexia nervosa?

     回答

     Persistent energy restriction, significantly low body weight, intense fear of weight gain, and disturbed body experience.

627. カード 627

     質問

     Cognitive explanation of disorder?

     回答

     It focuses on maladaptive beliefs, interpretations, and thinking patterns.

628. カード 628

     質問

     Bipolar II disorder?

     回答

     A bipolar disorder involving hypomanic and major depressive episodes without a full manic episode.

629. カード 629

     質問

     Purpose of the ICD?

     回答

     The World Health Organization's classification system supplies internationally used codes and categories for health conditions, including mental disorders.

630. カード 630

     質問

     Bulimia nervosa?

     回答

     Repeated binge eating followed by compensatory behavior, with self-evaluation strongly influenced by body shape or weight.

631. カード 631

     質問

     What broadly defines a personality disorder pattern?

     回答

     An enduring, inflexible pattern that departs from cultural expectations, begins in adolescence or early adulthood, and causes distress or impairment.

632. カード 632

     質問

     Ataque de nervios?

     回答

     A culture-related syndrome, described especially in some Latin American and Caribbean communities, involving an acute episode of intense emotional distress and loss of control.

633. カード 633

     質問

     Psychodynamic explanation of disorder?

     回答

     It focuses on unconscious conflicts and early relationships.

634. カード 634

     質問

     Three considerations when identifying a psychological disorder?

     回答

     Dysfunction, experienced distress, and deviation from social norms, interpreted with cultural context.

635. カード 635

     質問

     When may deception be ethically considered in research, and what must follow?

     回答

     Only when justified, minimal-risk, and not replaceable by a practical alternative; researchers must debrief participants promptly and explain the deception.

636. カード 636

     質問

     Comorbidity?

     回答

     The presence of two or more disorders in the same person.

637. カード 637

     質問

     Humanistic explanation of distress?

     回答

     It focuses on blocked growth, incongruence, and conditions of worth.

638. カード 638

     質問

     Confidential versus anonymous research data?

     回答

     Confidential data can be linked to identities but are protected; anonymous data are collected without identifying links.

639. カード 639

     質問

     Stigma around mental disorder?

     回答

     Negative stereotypes and discrimination that can increase distress and discourage help-seeking.

640. カード 640

     質問

     Why must diagnosis consider culture?

     回答

     Norms affect how distress is expressed and interpreted, so behavior can't be judged outside its context.

641. カード 641

     質問

     Sociocultural explanation of disorder?

     回答

     It focuses on social roles, inequality, relationships, discrimination, and cultural context.

642. カード 642

     質問

     Two clinicians independently use the same criteria. What quality is being checked?

     回答

     Interrater reliability.

643. カード 643

     質問

     A category improves communication but overlaps another category. Balanced conclusion?

     回答

     Classification is useful, but boundaries and comorbidity limit the idea of perfectly separate disorders.

644. カード 644

     質問

     Best account of neurodevelopmental-disorder causes?

     回答

     Genetic, physiological, and environmental factors may interact; no single cause explains every case.

645. カード 645

     質問

     Evolutionary explanation of disorder?

     回答

     It asks whether a behavior or mental process reflects an adaptation, mismatch, or cost related to survival and reproduction.

646. カード 646

     質問

     Delusion?

     回答

     A firmly held false belief that persists despite strong contrary evidence and isn't explained by cultural context.

647. カード 647

     質問

     Agoraphobia?

     回答

     Intense fear of situations where escape or help may feel difficult, such as crowds, transit, open spaces, or being outside alone.

648. カード 648

     質問

     Best account of schizophrenia risk?

     回答

     Biological vulnerability, including genetic and neural factors, interacts with prenatal and later environmental stressors.

649. カード 649

     質問

     Eclectic approach to disorder?

     回答

     Using ideas or treatments from more than one psychological perspective when evidence and client needs support them.

650. カード 650

     質問

     Hallucination?

     回答

     A sensory perception without a matching external stimulus.

651. カード 651

     質問

     Panic disorder?

     回答

     Recurrent unexpected panic attacks followed by continuing concern or behavior change related to more attacks.

652. カード 652

     質問

     Best account of depressive-disorder causes?

     回答

     Biological vulnerability can interact with learning, cognition, relationships, culture, and stressful events.

653. カード 653

     質問

     Two people face the same stressor, but the person with greater underlying vulnerability develops symptoms. Which model fits?

     回答

     The diathesis–stress model.

654. カード 654

     質問

     Cluster A personality disorders?

     回答

     The odd or eccentric cluster: paranoid, schizoid, and schizotypal personality disorders.

655. カード 655

     質問

     What do psychotherapy meta-analyses generally find?

     回答

     Psychotherapy is effective on average, while outcomes vary by problem, method, therapist, and client.

656. カード 656

     質問

     Evidence-based treatment?

     回答

     Using the best research evidence together with clinical expertise and the client's needs, culture, and preferences.

657. カード 657

     質問

     Therapeutic alliance?

     回答

     A collaborative, trusting relationship in which client and therapist agree on goals and work.

658. カード 658

     質問

     Cultural humility in therapy?

     回答

     Ongoing self-reflection, respect, and willingness to learn from the client's cultural experience.

659. カード 659

     質問

     Deinstitutionalization?

     回答

     Moving many people from long-term psychiatric hospitals toward community-based care, aided partly by medication.

660. カード 660

     質問

     A client safely approaches a feared situation in planned steps instead of avoiding it. Which treatment method is this?

     回答

     Exposure therapy.

661. カード 661

     質問

     Nonmaleficence in therapy?

     回答

     Avoiding or minimizing harm.

662. カード 662

     質問

     Four medication categories in the course?

     回答

     Antidepressants, antianxiety drugs, lithium, and antipsychotic medications.

663. カード 663

     質問

     Depressive cognitive triad?

     回答

     Negative views of oneself, the world, and the future.

664. カード 664

     質問

     Applied behavior analysis?

     回答

     Using measured learning principles to change socially significant behavior.

665. カード 665

     質問

     Psychosurgery?

     回答

     Rare invasive treatment that alters brain tissue; modern use is tightly limited because effects can be irreversible.

666. カード 666

     質問

     Free association?

     回答

     A psychodynamic technique in which a client says whatever comes to mind to explore unconscious themes.

667. カード 667

     質問

     A client examines evidence for an automatic thought and develops a more accurate alternative. Which technique is this?

     回答

     Cognitive restructuring.

668. カード 668

     質問

     One advantage of group therapy?

     回答

     Members can receive support, feedback, and practice with others while learning they aren't alone.

669. カード 669

     質問

     Lobotomy?

     回答

     An obsolete form of psychosurgery that cut frontal-lobe connections and often caused severe, irreversible harm.

670. カード 670

     質問

     Best account of bipolar-disorder causes?

     回答

     Biological and genetic influences are important, while stress and social context can affect episodes.

671. カード 671

     質問

     Cognitive-behavioral therapy?

     回答

     Treatment that changes maladaptive thinking and behavior together.

672. カード 672

     質問

     Disorganized speech in schizophrenia?

     回答

     Speech becomes difficult to follow because ideas or words are connected in disordered ways.

673. カード 673

     質問

     Social anxiety disorder?

     回答

     Intense fear of scrutiny or negative evaluation in social situations.

674. カード 674

     質問

     Best account of obsessive-compulsive-disorder causes?

     回答

     Biological factors and learned relief from compulsions can combine with maladaptive beliefs.

675. カード 675

     質問

     Rational-emotive behavior therapy?

     回答

     A cognitive-behavioral approach that challenges rigid, irrational beliefs and builds more workable alternatives.

676. カード 676

     質問

     Dissociative fugue?

     回答

     Dissociative amnesia accompanied by unexpected travel or confusion about identity.

677. カード 677

     質問

     Cluster B personality disorders?

     回答

     The dramatic, emotional, or erratic cluster: antisocial, borderline, histrionic, and narcissistic personality disorders.

678. カード 678

     質問

     Best account of anxiety-disorder causes?

     回答

     Biological vulnerability, learned fear, avoidance, and maladaptive interpretation can interact.

679. カード 679

     質問

     Catatonia?

     回答

     Markedly disordered movement, which can include unusual excitement or profound lack of movement.

680. カード 680

     質問

     Manic episode?

     回答

     A distinct period of unusually elevated or irritable mood and increased energy severe enough to cause major impairment or require hospitalization.

681. カード 681

     質問

     Dissociative identity disorder?

     回答

     Disruption of identity involving distinct personality states and gaps in autobiographical memory.

682. カード 682

     質問

     Best account of feeding and eating disorder causes?

     回答

     Biological, cognitive, behavioral, family, social, and cultural factors can interact.

683. カード 683

     質問

     Cluster C personality disorders?

     回答

     The anxious or fearful cluster: avoidant, dependent, and obsessive-compulsive personality disorders.

684. カード 684

     質問

     Taijin kyofusho?

     回答

     A culture-related syndrome described in Japan involving intense fear that one's appearance, gaze, odor, or behavior will offend or embarrass other people.

685. カード 685

     質問

     Negative symptom of schizophrenia?

     回答

     A reduction in a typical function, such as emotional expression, speech, motivation, or movement.

686. カード 686

     質問

     What experiences are often linked with dissociative disorders?

     回答

     Severe trauma or stress, though diagnosis requires careful assessment and isn't inferred from trauma alone.

687. カード 687

     質問

     Hypomanic episode?

     回答

     A noticeable period of elevated or irritable mood and increased energy that is less severe and impairing than mania.

688. カード 688

     質問

     Generalized anxiety disorder?

     回答

     Persistent, hard-to-control anxiety and worry across several areas of life.

689. カード 689

     質問

     Hoarding disorder?

     回答

     Persistent difficulty discarding possessions, producing clutter that impairs the use of living spaces.

690. カード 690

     質問

     Best account of personality-disorder causes?

     回答

     Biological dispositions and long-term social, cultural, learning, and cognitive influences can interact.

691. カード 691

     質問

     Why can't one symptom establish a disorder?

     回答

     Diagnosis depends on a broader pattern, duration, distress or impairment, context, and alternative explanations.

692. カード 692

     質問

     Persistent depressive disorder?

     回答

     A chronic depressed mood with related symptoms lasting at least two years in adults or one year in children and adolescents.

693. カード 693

     質問

     Fidelity in therapy ethics?

     回答

     Maintaining trust, responsibility, and professional commitments.

694. カード 694

     質問

     Systematic desensitization?

     回答

     Gradual exposure to a fear hierarchy while practicing relaxation or another incompatible response.

695. カード 695

     質問

     Dream interpretation in psychodynamic therapy?

     回答

     Exploring possible personal meanings and unconscious themes in dreams, not treating dreams as objective facts.

696. カード 696

     質問

     Dialectical behavior therapy?

     回答

     A cognitive-behavioral approach that builds mindfulness, emotion regulation, distress tolerance, and relationship skills.

697. カード 697

     質問

     Integrity in therapy ethics?

     回答

     Being honest and accurate in professional work.

698. カード 698

     質問

     Aversion therapy?

     回答

     Pairing an unwanted behavior with an unpleasant stimulus to reduce the behavior.

699. カード 699

     質問

     Tardive dyskinesia?

     回答

     A movement disorder that can occur as a serious side effect of long-term antipsychotic medication.

700. カード 700

     質問

     ECT versus TMS?

     回答

     ECT induces a controlled seizure under anesthesia; TMS uses magnetic pulses without surgery. Both can treat selected conditions.

701. カード 701

     質問

     Respect for rights and dignity?

     回答

     Protecting autonomy, privacy, confidentiality, and fair treatment.

702. カード 702

     質問

     A clinic awards points for target behaviors, and clients exchange the points for privileges. Which method is this?

     回答

     A token economy.

703. カード 703

     質問

     A therapist emphasizes empathy, genuineness, active listening, and unconditional positive regard. Which approach is this?

     回答

     Person-centered therapy.

704. カード 704

     質問

     What can hypnosis treat, and what can't it reliably do?

     回答

     It can help some pain and anxiety; it can't reliably recover accurate memories or produce true age regression.

705. カード 705

     質問

     Medication and psychotherapy outperform either alone for some conditions. Best conclusion?

     回答

     Combined treatment can be useful for some clients, but the best plan depends on the condition and individual evidence.