Nature in the nature–nurture question?

Inherited biological influences on behavior and mental processes.

Central nervous system?

The brain and spinal cord, which process information and coordinate responses.

Main role of the spinal cord?

It carries messages between brain and body and organizes some reflexes.

Scores are 4, 6, 8, 10. What is the mean?

7, found by dividing the total of 28 by 4 scores.

Nurture in the nature–nurture question?

Environmental influences, such as family, culture, education, and experience.

Peripheral nervous system?

The nerves that connect the central nervous system with the rest of the body.

A rapid neural pathway that can produce a response through the spinal cord before conscious brain processing.

Reflex times are 180, 190, 210, 260, 410 milliseconds. What is the median?

210 milliseconds, the middle score after ordering the five values.

The proportion of variation in a trait within a population that is associated with genetic differences. It doesn't describe one person's trait.

Autonomic nervous system?

The peripheral division that regulates involuntary functions of glands and internal organs.

Evolutionary perspective on behavior?

It asks how natural selection may have favored psychological traits that helped survival or reproduction.

Why is eugenics scientifically and ethically invalid?

It misuses heredity claims to rank people and justify coercion, while ignoring environmental influence, human rights, and the complexity of traits.

Why isn't behavior explained by genes or environment alone?

They interact. A biological tendency can be strengthened, weakened, or redirected by experience.

Researchers compare a trait across biological relatives who share different amounts of DNA. Which method is this?

A family study; twin comparisons are one example, but shared environments still limit causal conclusions.

Traits that support survival or reproduction can become more common across generations.

Somatic nervous system?

The peripheral division that carries sensory information and controls voluntary skeletal-muscle movement.

They carry incoming information from sensory receptors toward the central nervous system.

Which design compares adoptees with both biological and adoptive relatives?

An adoption study, used to separate some hereditary and environmental similarities.

Twins show a strong trait correlation. What keeps this result from proving genetic causation?

Correlation doesn't isolate genes from shared environments or other confounding variables.

Sympathetic nervous system?

The autonomic division that mobilizes energy during challenge or threat.

Evidence shows a genetic risk predicts an outcome only under chronic stress. Best claim?

The outcome reflects a gene–environment interaction, not a purely genetic effect.

They carry outgoing commands from the central nervous system to muscles or glands.

Sleep duration and stress are correlated. What directionality problem limits a causal conclusion?

The result cannot show whether less sleep raises stress, stress reduces sleep, or both directions operate.

Parasympathetic nervous system?

The autonomic division that calms the body and supports rest, digestion, and recovery.

The neuron's stable negative charge when it isn't firing, maintained by unequal ion concentrations across the membrane.

Neurons within the central nervous system that process information and connect other neurons.

Adrenaline's behavioral role?

It helps mobilize the body during arousal and the fight-or-flight response.

Planning, judgment, impulse control, working memory, voluntary movement, and aspects of speech.

The minimum stimulation needed to trigger an action potential.

The large fiber tract that carries information between the cerebral hemispheres.

Leptin's role in eating?

It signals stored energy and helps reduce hunger.

Auditory processing, language comprehension, memory, and object recognition.

Depolarization during an action potential?

Positive ions enter the neuron, making the membrane charge less negative and then briefly positive.

Dopamine's major psychological functions?

Movement, motivation, reward learning, attention, and reinforcement.

A substance that increases a neurotransmitter's effect by activating its receptor or supporting its action.

A brief electrical impulse that travels along a neuron after threshold is reached.

The sending neuron reabsorbs neurotransmitter from the synapse after release.

Serotonin's major psychological functions?

Mood, sleep, appetite, and arousal regulation.

Glutamate's major psychological functions?

It is the brain's main excitatory neurotransmitter and supports learning and memory.

A short recovery interval after firing when the neuron resets and can't immediately produce another full action potential.

It helps regulate circadian timing and promotes sleepiness in darkness.

A substance that blocks or reduces a neurotransmitter's effect at its receptor.

Psychoactive drugs that increase central nervous system activity and alertness.

A reduced response after repeated use, so a larger dose may be needed for the same effect.

All-or-none principle?

A neuron fires a full action potential once threshold is reached; stronger input changes firing rate, not impulse size.

Norepinephrine's major psychological functions?

Alertness, arousal, attention, and the stress response.

GABA's major psychological function?

It is the brain's main inhibitory neurotransmitter and reduces neural activity.

Oxytocin's behavioral role?

It supports social bonding and also contributes to childbirth and lactation.

A drug that keeps more neurotransmitter in the synapse by slowing reabsorption.

Flashcards Open Source App — Five-Unit Psychology Course Review

Review five units of psychology through concept recall, real-world applications, research methods, data analysis, and evidence-based reasoning.

Por el autor Flashcards Open Source App

Sobre este mazo

Review a five-unit psychology course with 705 independently written cards, ready to install and study offline. The deck covers biological bases of behavior, cognition, development and learning, social psychology and personality, and mental and physical health. It supports four science practices through concept application, research methods and design, data interpretation, and argumentation.

What this deck practices

Concept → meaning or function: recall a concise definition, mechanism, or distinction.
Scenario → concept: identify the idea that best explains a behavior, symptom pattern, or result.
Study description → method: identify a design, variable, sampling decision, ethical safeguard, limitation, or warranted conclusion.
Data representation → interpretation: read a compact table, distribution, graph pattern, statistic, or calculation and decide what the evidence shows.
Claim + evidence → reasoning: connect evidence to a defensible psychological explanation.

The sequence follows Units 1–5, stays within the current or next topic, and puts prerequisites and chronological steps first. Manually identified definition/application, foundation/claim, scenario, cue, and near-duplicate variants are assigned semantic families. At least three cards unrelated to either variant separate consecutive members of each family. Explicit prerequisite and chronological sequences stay together only when adjacency makes the progression easier to learn.

What's deliberately left out

The deck doesn't mechanically reverse every definition, diagnose personal anecdotes, offer treatment advice, or include long essay prompts. It stays within the reviewed five-unit course boundary and leaves out detailed genetics, neuron labeling, out-of-scope theories, unlisted disorders, names-and-dates trivia, and exhaustive study permutations.

Content and scope were reviewed on 2026-08-25.

The psychological facts and course outline aren't claimed as original. The CC0 label applies only to the independently written prompts, answers, organization, metadata, and ordering, to the extent those rights exist. No examination questions, scoring materials, curriculum text, source prose, logos, or third-party media were copied.

This independent, unofficial study deck is not affiliated with or endorsed by College Board.

Tarjetas de este mazo

Tarjeta 1
Pregunta
Nature in the nature–nurture question?
Respuesta
Inherited biological influences on behavior and mental processes.
Tarjeta 2
Pregunta
Central nervous system?
Respuesta
The brain and spinal cord, which process information and coordinate responses.
Tarjeta 3
Pregunta
Main role of the spinal cord?
Respuesta
It carries messages between brain and body and organizes some reflexes.
Tarjeta 4
Pregunta
Scores are 4, 6, 8, 10. What is the mean?
Respuesta
7, found by dividing the total of 28 by 4 scores.
Tarjeta 5
Pregunta
Nurture in the nature–nurture question?
Respuesta
Environmental influences, such as family, culture, education, and experience.
Tarjeta 6
Pregunta
Peripheral nervous system?
Respuesta
The nerves that connect the central nervous system with the rest of the body.
Tarjeta 7
Pregunta
Reflex arc?
Respuesta
A rapid neural pathway that can produce a response through the spinal cord before conscious brain processing.
Tarjeta 8
Pregunta
Reflex times are 180, 190, 210, 260, 410 milliseconds. What is the median?
Respuesta
210 milliseconds, the middle score after ordering the five values.
Tarjeta 9
Pregunta
Heritability?
Respuesta
The proportion of variation in a trait within a population that is associated with genetic differences. It doesn't describe one person's trait.
Tarjeta 10
Pregunta
Autonomic nervous system?
Respuesta
The peripheral division that regulates involuntary functions of glands and internal organs.
Tarjeta 11
Pregunta
Evolutionary perspective on behavior?
Respuesta
It asks how natural selection may have favored psychological traits that helped survival or reproduction.
Tarjeta 12
Pregunta
Why is eugenics scientifically and ethically invalid?
Respuesta
It misuses heredity claims to rank people and justify coercion, while ignoring environmental influence, human rights, and the complexity of traits.
Tarjeta 13
Pregunta
Why isn't behavior explained by genes or environment alone?
Respuesta
They interact. A biological tendency can be strengthened, weakened, or redirected by experience.
Tarjeta 14
Pregunta
Researchers compare a trait across biological relatives who share different amounts of DNA. Which method is this?
Respuesta
A family study; twin comparisons are one example, but shared environments still limit causal conclusions.
Tarjeta 15
Pregunta
Natural selection?
Respuesta
Traits that support survival or reproduction can become more common across generations.
Tarjeta 16
Pregunta
Somatic nervous system?
Respuesta
The peripheral division that carries sensory information and controls voluntary skeletal-muscle movement.
Tarjeta 17
Pregunta
Sensory neurons?
Respuesta
They carry incoming information from sensory receptors toward the central nervous system.
Tarjeta 18
Pregunta
Which design compares adoptees with both biological and adoptive relatives?
Respuesta
An adoption study, used to separate some hereditary and environmental similarities.
Tarjeta 19
Pregunta
Twins show a strong trait correlation. What keeps this result from proving genetic causation?
Respuesta
Correlation doesn't isolate genes from shared environments or other confounding variables.
Tarjeta 20
Pregunta
Sympathetic nervous system?
Respuesta
The autonomic division that mobilizes energy during challenge or threat.
Tarjeta 21
Pregunta
Evidence shows a genetic risk predicts an outcome only under chronic stress. Best claim?
Respuesta
The outcome reflects a gene–environment interaction, not a purely genetic effect.
Tarjeta 22
Pregunta
Motor neurons?
Respuesta
They carry outgoing commands from the central nervous system to muscles or glands.
Tarjeta 23
Pregunta
Sleep duration and stress are correlated. What directionality problem limits a causal conclusion?
Respuesta
The result cannot show whether less sleep raises stress, stress reduces sleep, or both directions operate.
Tarjeta 24
Pregunta
Parasympathetic nervous system?
Respuesta
The autonomic division that calms the body and supports rest, digestion, and recovery.
Tarjeta 25
Pregunta
Resting potential?
Respuesta
The neuron's stable negative charge when it isn't firing, maintained by unequal ion concentrations across the membrane.
Tarjeta 26
Pregunta
Interneurons?
Respuesta
Neurons within the central nervous system that process information and connect other neurons.
Tarjeta 27
Pregunta
Adrenaline's behavioral role?
Respuesta
It helps mobilize the body during arousal and the fight-or-flight response.
Tarjeta 28
Pregunta
Frontal lobes?
Respuesta
Planning, judgment, impulse control, working memory, voluntary movement, and aspects of speech.
Tarjeta 29
Pregunta
Neural threshold?
Respuesta
The minimum stimulation needed to trigger an action potential.
Tarjeta 30
Pregunta
Corpus callosum?
Respuesta
The large fiber tract that carries information between the cerebral hemispheres.
Tarjeta 31
Pregunta
Leptin's role in eating?
Respuesta
It signals stored energy and helps reduce hunger.
Tarjeta 32
Pregunta
Temporal lobes?
Respuesta
Auditory processing, language comprehension, memory, and object recognition.
Tarjeta 33
Pregunta
Depolarization during an action potential?
Respuesta
Positive ions enter the neuron, making the membrane charge less negative and then briefly positive.
Tarjeta 34
Pregunta
Dopamine's major psychological functions?
Respuesta
Movement, motivation, reward learning, attention, and reinforcement.
Tarjeta 35
Pregunta
Ghrelin's role in eating?
Respuesta
It helps stimulate hunger.
Tarjeta 36
Pregunta
Drug agonist?
Respuesta
A substance that increases a neurotransmitter's effect by activating its receptor or supporting its action.
Tarjeta 37
Pregunta
Action potential?
Respuesta
A brief electrical impulse that travels along a neuron after threshold is reached.
Tarjeta 38
Pregunta
Reuptake?
Respuesta
The sending neuron reabsorbs neurotransmitter from the synapse after release.
Tarjeta 39
Pregunta
Serotonin's major psychological functions?
Respuesta
Mood, sleep, appetite, and arousal regulation.
Tarjeta 40
Pregunta
Glutamate's major psychological functions?
Respuesta
It is the brain's main excitatory neurotransmitter and supports learning and memory.
Tarjeta 41
Pregunta
Refractory period?
Respuesta
A short recovery interval after firing when the neuron resets and can't immediately produce another full action potential.
Tarjeta 42
Pregunta
Melatonin's role?
Respuesta
It helps regulate circadian timing and promotes sleepiness in darkness.
Tarjeta 43
Pregunta
Drug antagonist?
Respuesta
A substance that blocks or reduces a neurotransmitter's effect at its receptor.
Tarjeta 44
Pregunta
Stimulants?
Respuesta
Psychoactive drugs that increase central nervous system activity and alertness.
Tarjeta 45
Pregunta
Drug tolerance?
Respuesta
A reduced response after repeated use, so a larger dose may be needed for the same effect.
Tarjeta 46
Pregunta
Damage to myelin slows messages in the central nervous system. Which disorder illustrates this problem?
Respuesta
Multiple sclerosis.
Tarjeta 47
Pregunta
All-or-none principle?
Respuesta
A neuron fires a full action potential once threshold is reached; stronger input changes firing rate, not impulse size.
Tarjeta 48
Pregunta
Norepinephrine's major psychological functions?
Respuesta
Alertness, arousal, attention, and the stress response.
Tarjeta 49
Pregunta
GABA's major psychological function?
Respuesta
It is the brain's main inhibitory neurotransmitter and reduces neural activity.
Tarjeta 50
Pregunta
Oxytocin's behavioral role?
Respuesta
It supports social bonding and also contributes to childbirth and lactation.
Tarjeta 51
Pregunta
Reuptake inhibitor?
Respuesta
A drug that keeps more neurotransmitter in the synapse by slowing reabsorption.
Tarjeta 52
Pregunta
Depressants?
Respuesta
Psychoactive drugs that reduce central nervous system activity.
Tarjeta 53
Pregunta
Drug withdrawal?
Respuesta
Physical or psychological symptoms that can appear when regular drug use is reduced or stopped.
Tarjeta 54
Pregunta
Antibodies disrupt acetylcholine receptors at muscles, causing weakness. Which disorder illustrates this problem?
Respuesta
Myasthenia gravis.
Tarjeta 55
Pregunta
Glial cells?
Respuesta
Cells that support, nourish, insulate, protect, and help regulate neurons and their connections.
Tarjeta 56
Pregunta
Endorphins?
Respuesta
Natural neurotransmitters that reduce pain and can produce pleasure.
Tarjeta 57
Pregunta
Substance P?
Respuesta
A neurotransmitter involved in pain signaling.
Tarjeta 58
Pregunta
Acetylcholine's major functions?
Respuesta
Muscle action, learning, memory, and attention.
Tarjeta 59
Pregunta
Opioids?
Respuesta
Drugs that bind to opioid receptors, reducing pain and often producing relaxation or euphoria.
Tarjeta 60
Pregunta
Hallucinogens?
Respuesta
Drugs that alter perception and can produce sensory experiences without matching external input.
Tarjeta 61
Pregunta
Addiction?
Respuesta
Compulsive substance use or behavior that continues despite harmful consequences and is difficult to control.
Tarjeta 62
Pregunta
Parietal lobes?
Respuesta
Body-sense processing, spatial attention, and integrating sensory information.
Tarjeta 63
Pregunta
Consciousness?
Respuesta
Awareness of internal experiences and the surrounding environment.
Tarjeta 64
Pregunta
Circadian rhythm?
Respuesta
A roughly 24-hour biological cycle that helps regulate sleep and wakefulness.
Tarjeta 65
Pregunta
Damage causes slow, effortful speech with relatively preserved comprehension. Likely region?
Respuesta
Broca's area, usually in the left frontal lobe.
Tarjeta 66
Pregunta
Occipital lobes?
Respuesta
Primary cortical processing of visual information.
Tarjeta 67
Pregunta
What does split-brain research reveal?
Respuesta
When the corpus callosum is severed, the hemispheres can process some information independently.
Tarjeta 68
Pregunta
How does the suprachiasmatic nucleus regulate circadian rhythm?
Respuesta
It uses light information from the eyes to coordinate the body's roughly 24-hour clock.
Tarjeta 69
Pregunta
NREM-1 sleep?
Respuesta
The light transition into sleep, sometimes accompanied by hypnagogic sensations.
Tarjeta 70
Pregunta
Motor cortex?
Respuesta
A frontal-lobe strip that directs voluntary movement.
Tarjeta 71
Pregunta
Damage causes fluent but nonsensical speech and poor comprehension. Likely region?
Respuesta
Wernicke's area, usually in the left temporal lobe.
Tarjeta 72
Pregunta
Brainstem's core function?
Respuesta
It supports basic survival functions and connects the brain with the spinal cord.
Tarjeta 73
Pregunta
NREM-2 sleep?
Respuesta
A light sleep stage marked by sleep spindles and K-complexes.
Tarjeta 74
Pregunta
Somatosensory cortex?
Respuesta
A parietal-lobe strip that registers touch and body-position information.
Tarjeta 75
Pregunta
Medulla's main functions?
Respuesta
It regulates vital automatic functions such as breathing and heart rate.
Tarjeta 76
Pregunta
Reticular activating system?
Respuesta
A brainstem network involved in alertness, arousal, and the sleep–wake cycle.
Tarjeta 77
Pregunta
NREM-3 sleep?
Respuesta
Deep slow-wave sleep, associated with physical restoration and difficult awakening.
Tarjeta 78
Pregunta
Cerebellum's main functions?
Respuesta
Balance, coordinated movement, procedural learning, and timing.
Tarjeta 79
Pregunta
Thalamus?
Respuesta
A relay that directs most sensory information to the cerebral cortex and helps regulate alertness.
Tarjeta 80
Pregunta
Hypothalamus?
Respuesta
It helps regulate homeostasis, hunger, thirst, temperature, sexual behavior, and endocrine activity.
Tarjeta 81
Pregunta
REM sleep?
Respuesta
A stage with vivid dreaming, rapid eye movements, active brain patterns, and skeletal-muscle paralysis.
Tarjeta 82
Pregunta
Why is the pituitary called a master gland?
Respuesta
Its hormones influence other endocrine glands, under the hypothalamus's control.
Tarjeta 83
Pregunta
Amygdala?
Respuesta
A limbic structure involved in processing emotion, threat, and emotional learning.
Tarjeta 84
Pregunta
Hippocampus?
Respuesta
A limbic structure essential for forming new explicit memories and spatial memory.
Tarjeta 85
Pregunta
How does sleep change across a typical night?
Respuesta
NREM and REM repeat in cycles; REM periods generally lengthen toward morning.
Tarjeta 86
Pregunta
Contralateral brain control?
Respuesta
Each cerebral hemisphere mainly receives sensory input from and controls movement on the opposite side of the body.
Tarjeta 87
Pregunta
What does an EEG measure?
Respuesta
Electrical activity recorded from the scalp, with strong timing information but limited spatial precision.
Tarjeta 88
Pregunta
Reward-center activity?
Respuesta
Activity in neural reward pathways can reinforce behaviors that predict desirable outcomes.
Tarjeta 89
Pregunta
Neuroplasticity?
Respuesta
The nervous system's ability to change its organization or function through experience, learning, or injury.
Tarjeta 90
Pregunta
Which method shows brain activity changing during a task?
Respuesta
A functional brain-imaging method, such as fMRI or PET, rather than a structural scan alone.
Tarjeta 91
Pregunta
A patient loses a function after damage to one brain region. What is the cautious conclusion?
Respuesta
The region contributes to the function, but the behavior may depend on a wider network.
Tarjeta 92
Pregunta
Insomnia?
Respuesta
Persistent difficulty falling asleep, staying asleep, or obtaining restorative sleep.
Tarjeta 93
Pregunta
How do wavelength and amplitude shape sound?
Respuesta
Wavelength relates to frequency and perceived pitch; amplitude relates to intensity and perceived loudness.
Tarjeta 94
Pregunta
Absolute threshold?
Respuesta
The minimum stimulation detected 50% of the time.
Tarjeta 95
Pregunta
Activation-synthesis view of dreams?
Respuesta
The brain builds a story while interpreting internally generated neural activity during sleep.
Tarjeta 96
Pregunta
Narcolepsy?
Respuesta
A disorder involving sudden sleep attacks and abnormal entry into REM sleep.
Tarjeta 97
Pregunta
Why can jet lag disrupt sleep?
Respuesta
The internal circadian clock is temporarily out of sync with the new light–dark schedule.
Tarjeta 98
Pregunta
Difference threshold?
Respuesta
The smallest change between stimuli detected 50% of the time.
Tarjeta 99
Pregunta
Consolidation view of dreams?
Respuesta
Dreaming may reflect the brain organizing and integrating recent memories.
Tarjeta 100
Pregunta
REM sleep behavior disorder?
Respuesta
Loss of normal REM muscle paralysis, allowing a person to act out dreams.
Tarjeta 101
Pregunta
Why can rotating shift work impair sleep?
Respuesta
Frequent schedule changes force the circadian system to keep readjusting.
Tarjeta 102
Pregunta
Weber's law?
Respuesta
The noticeable difference between two stimuli is a constant proportion of the original intensity.
Tarjeta 103
Pregunta
Two supported functions of sleep?
Respuesta
Memory consolidation and restoration of resources used during waking activity.
Tarjeta 104
Pregunta
Sleep apnea?
Respuesta
Repeated breathing interruptions during sleep that fragment sleep and reduce oxygen.
Tarjeta 105
Pregunta
REM rebound?
Respuesta
A temporary increase in REM sleep after a period of REM deprivation.
Tarjeta 106
Pregunta
Signal detection theory?
Respuesta
Detection depends on stimulus strength plus expectations, experience, motivation, and alertness.
Tarjeta 107
Pregunta
Sensory transduction?
Respuesta
Sensory receptors convert physical energy into neural signals.
Tarjeta 108
Pregunta
Vestibular sense?
Respuesta
The sense of balance and head movement, supported by structures in the inner ear.
Tarjeta 109
Pregunta
Somnambulism?
Respuesta
Sleepwalking, which most often occurs during deep NREM sleep.
Tarjeta 110
Pregunta
Why is there a blind spot in each eye?
Respuesta
The optic nerve leaves the retina at a point with no rods or cones.
Tarjeta 111
Pregunta
What begins visual transduction?
Respuesta
Retinal receptors convert light into neural signals that travel toward the brain.
Tarjeta 112
Pregunta
A sound reaches the left ear slightly earlier and louder than the right. Where will it seem to originate?
Respuesta
From the left, because the brain compares arrival-time and intensity differences between the ears.
Tarjeta 113
Pregunta
Why are taste and smell called chemical senses?
Respuesta
Their receptors respond to molecules from food or the air.
Tarjeta 114
Pregunta
Accommodation in vision?
Respuesta
The lens changes shape to focus near or distant objects on the retina.
Tarjeta 115
Pregunta
Cones?
Respuesta
Retinal receptors that support color vision and fine detail in brighter light.
Tarjeta 116
Pregunta
What begins auditory transduction?
Respuesta
Hair cells in the inner ear convert sound-driven vibration into neural signals.
Tarjeta 117
Pregunta
How does trichromatic processing explain color vision?
Respuesta
Three cone types respond most strongly to different wavelength ranges, and their combined activity produces color experience.
Tarjeta 118
Pregunta
How is smell unusual among the senses?
Respuesta
Olfactory signals reach cortical and limbic areas without first passing through the thalamic relay used by other senses.
Tarjeta 119
Pregunta
Kinesthesia?
Respuesta
The sense of body-part position and movement, based on signals from muscles, tendons, and joints.
Tarjeta 120
Pregunta
Place coding versus frequency coding in hearing?
Respuesta
Place coding links pitch to where the cochlea responds most; frequency coding links pitch to neural firing rate.
Tarjeta 121
Pregunta
Nearsightedness?
Respuesta
Nearby objects are clear, but distant images focus in front of the retina and look blurred.
Tarjeta 122
Pregunta
Pheromones?
Respuesta
Chemical signals released by one organism that can affect the behavior or physiology of others of the same species.
Tarjeta 123
Pregunta
Touch receptors for warmth and cold fire together strongly. What sensation can result?
Respuesta
A hot or burning sensation, showing that temperature experience combines receptor signals.
Tarjeta 124
Pregunta
Volley theory of pitch?
Respuesta
Groups of auditory neurons alternate firing so their combined rate can represent pitches too fast for one neuron alone.
Tarjeta 125
Pregunta
Farsightedness?
Respuesta
Distant vision is clearer, while nearby images tend to focus behind the retina and look blurred.
Tarjeta 126
Pregunta
Six taste qualities named in the course?
Respuesta
Sweet, sour, salty, bitter, umami, and oleogustus (fat taste).
Tarjeta 127
Pregunta
Phantom-limb sensation?
Respuesta
Feeling pain, touch, or movement in a limb that is no longer present because the nervous system still represents it.
Tarjeta 128
Pregunta
Sensory interaction?
Respuesta
One sense changes how another is experienced, as smell influences flavor.
Tarjeta 129
Pregunta
What causes most color-vision deficiency?
Respuesta
One or more cone types are missing or function differently, reducing discrimination among some colors.
Tarjeta 130
Pregunta
Prosopagnosia?
Respuesta
Difficulty recognizing familiar faces despite otherwise usable vision.
Tarjeta 131
Pregunta
Rods?
Respuesta
Retinal receptors sensitive to dim light and peripheral movement, without color detail.
Tarjeta 132
Pregunta
How does opponent processing explain afterimages?
Respuesta
Color is coded in opposing pairs, so tiring one response can make its opponent briefly dominate.
Tarjeta 133
Pregunta
Conductive versus sensorineural hearing loss?
Respuesta
Conductive loss blocks sound transmission; sensorineural loss damages hair cells or auditory pathways.
Tarjeta 134
Pregunta
Nontasters, medium tasters, and supertasters?
Respuesta
Categories describing lower, typical, and unusually high sensitivity to taste, especially bitterness.
Tarjeta 135
Pregunta
What do the semicircular canals detect?
Respuesta
Rotational head movement, helping the vestibular system maintain balance.
Tarjeta 136
Pregunta
Synesthesia?
Respuesta
Stimulation of one sense consistently and automatically produces an additional sensory experience.
Tarjeta 137
Pregunta
Dichromatism versus monochromatism?
Respuesta
Dichromatism uses two functioning cone systems; monochromatism uses one or none, producing far less color discrimination.
Tarjeta 138
Pregunta
Blindsight?
Respuesta
Responding to visual information without consciously seeing it, usually after damage to primary visual cortex.
Tarjeta 139
Pregunta
Sensory adaptation?
Respuesta
Reduced sensitivity after constant, unchanging stimulation.
Tarjeta 140
Pregunta
Gate-control view of pain?
Respuesta
Spinal and brain processes can amplify or reduce pain signals before conscious experience.
Tarjeta 141
Pregunta
Bottom-up processing?
Respuesta
Building a perception from incoming sensory details.
Tarjeta 142
Pregunta
Concept?
Respuesta
A mental category used to group similar objects, events, ideas, or people.
Tarjeta 143
Pregunta
Fixation in problem solving?
Respuesta
Getting stuck on one way of representing or solving a problem.
Tarjeta 144
Pregunta
Algorithm?
Respuesta
A step-by-step method that guarantees a solution when followed correctly, though it may be slow.
Tarjeta 145
Pregunta
Top-down processing?
Respuesta
Using expectations, context, and prior knowledge to interpret sensory input.
Tarjeta 146
Pregunta
Confirmation bias?
Respuesta
Seeking or interpreting evidence in ways that support an existing belief.
Tarjeta 147
Pregunta
Retinal disparity?
Respuesta
The difference between each eye's image; greater disparity usually signals a nearer object.
Tarjeta 148
Pregunta
Heuristic?
Respuesta
A quick rule of thumb that saves effort but can produce errors.
Tarjeta 149
Pregunta
Selective attention?
Respuesta
Focusing conscious awareness on one part of the available sensory input.
Tarjeta 150
Pregunta
Figure–ground organization?
Respuesta
Separating the object of attention from its background.
Tarjeta 151
Pregunta
Convergence as a depth cue?
Respuesta
The inward turning of the eyes increases as an object gets closer.
Tarjeta 152
Pregunta
Representativeness heuristic?
Respuesta
Judging category membership by resemblance to a prototype while neglecting other information.
Tarjeta 153
Pregunta
Missing a visible event while attention is elsewhere?
Respuesta
Inattentional blindness.
Tarjeta 154
Pregunta
Gestalt proximity principle?
Respuesta
Elements close together tend to be perceived as a group.
Tarjeta 155
Pregunta
Two familiar objects cast different-sized retinal images. Which looks farther away?
Respuesta
The one with the smaller retinal image, using the monocular cue of relative size.
Tarjeta 156
Pregunta
Cocktail-party effect?
Respuesta
The ability to focus on one conversation while still noticing personally important information in the background.
Tarjeta 157
Pregunta
Failing to notice an obvious change in a scene?
Respuesta
Change blindness.
Tarjeta 158
Pregunta
Gestalt similarity principle?
Respuesta
Elements that look alike tend to be grouped together.
Tarjeta 159
Pregunta
Parallel lines seem to meet in the distance. Which depth cue?
Respuesta
Linear perspective.
Tarjeta 160
Pregunta
Perceptual constancy?
Respuesta
Seeing an object's size, shape, or color as stable despite changing sensory images.
Tarjeta 161
Pregunta
Perceptual set?
Respuesta
A readiness to perceive something in a particular way because of expectations or context.
Tarjeta 162
Pregunta
Gestalt closure principle?
Respuesta
The mind fills gaps to perceive a complete object.
Tarjeta 163
Pregunta
One object blocks part of another. Which seems closer?
Respuesta
The blocking object, using interposition.
Tarjeta 164
Pregunta
Apparent motion?
Respuesta
The perception of movement created by rapidly presented stationary images or lights.
Tarjeta 165
Pregunta
Availability heuristic?
Respuesta
Judging likelihood by how easily examples come to mind.
Tarjeta 166
Pregunta
Divergent thinking?
Respuesta
Generating many varied, original possibilities.
Tarjeta 167
Pregunta
A hazy object appears farther away than a sharp object. Which depth cue?
Respuesta
Relative clarity.
Tarjeta 168
Pregunta
Prototype?
Respuesta
A mental image of the most typical example of a category.
Tarjeta 169
Pregunta
Ignoring how common an event is while focusing on a vivid description?
Respuesta
Base-rate neglect, often tied to the representativeness heuristic.
Tarjeta 170
Pregunta
Convergent thinking?
Respuesta
Narrowing possibilities to the single best answer.
Tarjeta 171
Pregunta
A textured surface looks denser and finer with distance. Which depth cue?
Respuesta
Texture gradient.
Tarjeta 172
Pregunta
Belief perseverance?
Respuesta
Holding a belief even after the evidence that created it has been discredited.
Tarjeta 173
Pregunta
Explicit memory?
Respuesta
Conscious memory for facts and experiences.
Tarjeta 174
Pregunta
Three stores in the multi-store model?
Respuesta
Sensory memory, short-term memory, and long-term memory.
Tarjeta 175
Pregunta
Seeing an object only in its usual role?
Respuesta
Functional fixedness.
Tarjeta 176
Pregunta
Mental set?
Respuesta
Using a familiar solution strategy even when a different approach would work better.
Tarjeta 177
Pregunta
Episodic memory?
Respuesta
Explicit memory for personally experienced events.
Tarjeta 178
Pregunta
Working memory?
Respuesta
A limited-capacity system that briefly holds and actively manipulates information.
Tarjeta 179
Pregunta
Insight?
Respuesta
A sudden realization of a problem's solution.
Tarjeta 180
Pregunta
Framing effect?
Respuesta
Choices change when the same information is worded or presented differently.
Tarjeta 181
Pregunta
Implicit memory?
Respuesta
Learning that affects behavior without deliberate conscious recall.
Tarjeta 182
Pregunta
Overconfidence bias?
Respuesta
Being more certain about one's judgments than accuracy warrants.
Tarjeta 183
Pregunta
Anchoring bias?
Respuesta
Relying too heavily on the first number or idea encountered.
Tarjeta 184
Pregunta
Schema in thinking?
Respuesta
A mental framework that organizes knowledge and guides interpretation.
Tarjeta 185
Pregunta
Procedural memory?
Respuesta
Implicit memory for skills and habits.
Tarjeta 186
Pregunta
Gambler's fallacy?
Respuesta
The mistaken belief that a random outcome becomes due after a streak, even when trials are independent.
Tarjeta 187
Pregunta
Sunk-cost fallacy?
Respuesta
Continuing because of past investment even when future costs outweigh future benefits.
Tarjeta 188
Pregunta
Executive functions?
Respuesta
Mental processes that support planning, inhibition, flexible switching, and goal-directed control.
Tarjeta 189
Pregunta
How can priming affect judgment?
Respuesta
Recent exposure can make related ideas more accessible and subtly shape a later response.
Tarjeta 190
Pregunta
Central executive in working memory?
Respuesta
The attention-control component that coordinates verbal and visual-spatial processing.
Tarjeta 191
Pregunta
Serial-position effect?
Respuesta
People tend to recall the first and last items in a list better than the middle.
Tarjeta 192
Pregunta
Semantic memory?
Respuesta
Explicit memory for facts, meanings, and general knowledge.
Tarjeta 193
Pregunta
Levels-of-processing principle?
Respuesta
Deeper semantic processing usually produces stronger memory than shallow structural or sound-based processing.
Tarjeta 194
Pregunta
Automatic processing?
Respuesta
Encoding information with little conscious effort, such as space, time, or well-practiced meanings.
Tarjeta 195
Pregunta
Maintenance rehearsal?
Respuesta
Repeating information to keep it active, usually without adding much meaning.
Tarjeta 196
Pregunta
Prospective memory?
Respuesta
Remembering to carry out an intended action in the future.
Tarjeta 197
Pregunta
Primacy effect?
Respuesta
Better memory for early list items, often because they receive more rehearsal.
Tarjeta 198
Pregunta
Long-term memory?
Respuesta
A relatively durable, large-capacity store of knowledge, experiences, and skills.
Tarjeta 199
Pregunta
Highly superior autobiographical memory?
Respuesta
An unusual ability to recall extensive personal events and dates with exceptional accuracy.
Tarjeta 200
Pregunta
Effortful processing?
Respuesta
Encoding that requires attention and deliberate work.
Tarjeta 201
Pregunta
Elaborative rehearsal?
Respuesta
Linking new information to meaning, examples, or existing knowledge.
Tarjeta 202
Pregunta
Memory consolidation?
Respuesta
The process that stabilizes a memory after learning.
Tarjeta 203
Pregunta
Recency effect?
Respuesta
Better immediate memory for the last list items because they remain active.
Tarjeta 204
Pregunta
Spacing effect?
Respuesta
Learning lasts longer when study is distributed over time rather than massed into one session.
Tarjeta 205
Pregunta
Testing effect?
Respuesta
Actively retrieving information improves later memory more than rereading alone.
Tarjeta 206
Pregunta
Chunking?
Respuesta
Organizing separate pieces of information into meaningful units.
Tarjeta 207
Pregunta
Mnemonic?
Respuesta
A structured memory aid that links material to an image, phrase, location, or pattern.
Tarjeta 208
Pregunta
Why organize material into a hierarchy?
Respuesta
Grouping broad ideas above narrower details makes relationships easier to encode and retrieve.
Tarjeta 209
Pregunta
How can a schema help encoding?
Respuesta
It supplies an existing framework that organizes and connects new information.
Tarjeta 210
Pregunta
Students reread or practice retrieval, then take the same delayed test. What are the independent and dependent variables?
Respuesta
The study method is independent; delayed-test performance is dependent.
Tarjeta 211
Pregunta
Iconic memory?
Respuesta
A very brief visual sensory memory.
Tarjeta 212
Pregunta
Recall?
Respuesta
Retrieving information with few external cues, as in an essay question.
Tarjeta 213
Pregunta
Retrieval cue?
Respuesta
A stimulus linked to a memory that helps bring it to awareness.
Tarjeta 214
Pregunta
Encoding-specificity principle?
Respuesta
Retrieval improves when cues at recall match cues present during encoding.
Tarjeta 215
Pregunta
Context-dependent memory?
Respuesta
Recall can improve in the same external environment where learning occurred.
Tarjeta 216
Pregunta
Does the hippocampus permanently store every explicit memory?
Respuesta
No. It helps form and consolidate new explicit memories, which later depend on distributed cortical networks.
Tarjeta 217
Pregunta
Echoic memory?
Respuesta
A brief auditory sensory memory that lasts longer than iconic memory.
Tarjeta 218
Pregunta
Anterograde amnesia?
Respuesta
Difficulty forming new long-term explicit memories after the onset of damage or illness.
Tarjeta 219
Pregunta
Phonological loop?
Respuesta
The working-memory component that briefly holds and rehearses verbal or sound information.
Tarjeta 220
Pregunta
Cerebellum's memory role?
Respuesta
It supports procedural learning and some classically conditioned responses.
Tarjeta 221
Pregunta
Why is short-term memory described as limited?
Respuesta
It can hold only a small amount of information without rehearsal or chunking.
Tarjeta 222
Pregunta
Retrograde amnesia?
Respuesta
Loss of memories formed before the onset of damage or illness.
Tarjeta 223
Pregunta
Why are events tied to your own life often easier to remember?
Respuesta
The self-reference effect makes information connected to oneself more memorable.
Tarjeta 224
Pregunta
How can the amygdala affect memory?
Respuesta
Emotional arousal can strengthen consolidation of emotionally significant events.
Tarjeta 225
Pregunta
Visuospatial sketchpad?
Respuesta
The working-memory component that holds and manipulates visual and spatial information.
Tarjeta 226
Pregunta
Long-term potentiation?
Respuesta
A lasting increase in synaptic efficiency after repeated activation, associated with learning and memory.
Tarjeta 227
Pregunta
Infantile amnesia?
Respuesta
The typical inability to recall autobiographical events from the first few years of life.
Tarjeta 228
Pregunta
Alzheimer's disease?
Respuesta
A progressive brain disorder that gradually impairs memory, reasoning, and daily functioning.
Tarjeta 229
Pregunta
Scores are 2, 4, 4, 7, 9. What are the mode and range?
Respuesta
The mode is 4, and the range is 7 because 9 - 2 = 7.
Tarjeta 230
Pregunta
Recognition?
Respuesta
Identifying previously learned information, as in selecting a familiar answer.
Tarjeta 231
Pregunta
Why is memory called reconstructive?
Respuesta
Recall rebuilds an event from stored details, schemas, expectations, and later information.
Tarjeta 232
Pregunta
Storage decay?
Respuesta
A memory trace weakens over time, especially when it isn't used.
Tarjeta 233
Pregunta
State-dependent memory?
Respuesta
Recall can improve when a person's internal state matches the state during learning.
Tarjeta 234
Pregunta
Relearning?
Respuesta
Measuring memory by how much faster material is learned again.
Tarjeta 235
Pregunta
Misinformation effect?
Respuesta
Misleading information after an event changes memory of the event.
Tarjeta 236
Pregunta
A student recalls more in the original classroom. What claim is supported?
Respuesta
Matching environmental cues can aid retrieval; the setting didn't necessarily improve storage.
Tarjeta 237
Pregunta
Mood-congruent memory?
Respuesta
A current mood makes similarly toned memories easier to retrieve.
Tarjeta 238
Pregunta
Priming?
Respuesta
Exposure to one stimulus unconsciously influences the response to a later stimulus.
Tarjeta 239
Pregunta
Tip-of-the-tongue state?
Respuesta
A temporary retrieval failure accompanied by a feeling that the answer is known.
Tarjeta 240
Pregunta
Why does retrieval practice strengthen memory?
Respuesta
Each successful retrieval reinforces access routes and reveals what still needs study.
Tarjeta 241
Pregunta
Class A scores cluster near 80; Class B has the same mean but scores spread from 50 to 100. Which class has the larger standard deviation?
Respuesta
Class B, because its scores vary farther from the mean.
Tarjeta 242
Pregunta
Metacognition?
Respuesta
Monitoring and regulating one's own thinking and learning.
Tarjeta 243
Pregunta
Source amnesia?
Respuesta
Remembering information but misremembering where it came from.
Tarjeta 244
Pregunta
Test standardization?
Respuesta
Administering a test consistently and establishing norms from a representative sample.
Tarjeta 245
Pregunta
Reliability?
Respuesta
The consistency of a measurement across time, items, or scorers.
Tarjeta 246
Pregunta
Stereotype threat?
Respuesta
Concern about confirming a negative group stereotype can interfere with performance.
Tarjeta 247
Pregunta
General intelligence, or g?
Respuesta
A broad mental ability proposed to contribute to performance across many cognitive tasks.
Tarjeta 248
Pregunta
Encoding failure?
Respuesta
Information never entered memory well enough to be stored, often because attention was weak.
Tarjeta 249
Pregunta
Validity?
Respuesta
The extent to which evidence supports the interpretation and use of a test score.
Tarjeta 250
Pregunta
Proactive interference?
Respuesta
Older learning disrupts recall of newer information.
Tarjeta 251
Pregunta
Imagination inflation?
Respuesta
Repeatedly imagining an event increases confidence that it really happened.
Tarjeta 252
Pregunta
A forgetting curve drops sharply soon after learning, then flattens. What does this pattern show?
Respuesta
Forgetting is fastest soon after learning and slows over time.
Tarjeta 253
Pregunta
Retrieval failure?
Respuesta
Stored information is temporarily inaccessible because effective cues are missing.
Tarjeta 254
Pregunta
Retroactive interference?
Respuesta
Newer learning disrupts recall of older information.
Tarjeta 255
Pregunta
A confident witness recalls a detail introduced after the event. Best conclusion?
Respuesta
Confidence doesn't guarantee accuracy; post-event misinformation may have altered the memory.
Tarjeta 256
Pregunta
Repression in psychodynamic theory?
Respuesta
The proposed unconscious blocking of distressing memories or impulses from awareness.
Tarjeta 257
Pregunta
Flashbulb memory?
Respuesta
A vivid memory for learning about an emotional event; confidence can remain high even when details change.
Tarjeta 258
Pregunta
A study defines memory accuracy as the number of 20 words recalled after 24 hours. What design element is this?
Respuesta
An operational definition of memory accuracy.
Tarjeta 259
Pregunta
A score is at the 84th percentile. What does that mean?
Respuesta
It is equal to or higher than about 84% of scores in the reference group.
Tarjeta 260
Pregunta
Stereotype lift?
Respuesta
A performance boost that can occur when a negative stereotype targets another group, making one's own group seem comparatively advantaged.
Tarjeta 261
Pregunta
Achievement test?
Respuesta
An assessment of knowledge or skills already learned.
Tarjeta 262
Pregunta
Construct validity?
Respuesta
How well evidence shows that a test measures the psychological construct it claims to measure.
Tarjeta 263
Pregunta
Test–retest reliability?
Respuesta
Consistency of scores when the same assessment is administered to the same people at different times.
Tarjeta 264
Pregunta
Why can't historical group differences on intelligence tests justify discriminatory policy?
Respuesta
Scores reflect testing conditions and social opportunity as well as measured ability; group averages don't define individuals or prove biological causation.
Tarjeta 265
Pregunta
Multiple-abilities view of intelligence?
Respuesta
Intelligence includes several partly distinct abilities rather than one general capacity alone.
Tarjeta 266
Pregunta
Aptitude test?
Respuesta
An assessment intended to predict capacity to learn or perform in the future.
Tarjeta 267
Pregunta
Traditional IQ formula?
Respuesta
Mental age divided by chronological age, multiplied by 100. Modern tests use age-based norms instead.
Tarjeta 268
Pregunta
Predictive validity?
Respuesta
How well a test score forecasts a relevant later outcome.
Tarjeta 269
Pregunta
What does a normal score distribution look like?
Respuesta
Most scores cluster near the mean, with fewer scores toward either extreme.
Tarjeta 270
Pregunta
Split-half reliability?
Respuesta
Consistency between two comparable halves of the same assessment.
Tarjeta 271
Pregunta
Two groups have different average test scores. What conclusion is not justified?
Respuesta
That every member differs or that biology caused the gap; within-group variation and social conditions matter.
Tarjeta 272
Pregunta
Flynn effect?
Respuesta
Average intelligence-test scores have risen across generations in many populations, pointing to environmental influence.
Tarjeta 273
Pregunta
A student treats mistakes as information and changes study strategies. Which mindset does this show?
Respuesta
A growth mindset; a fixed mindset treats ability as largely unchangeable.
Tarjeta 274
Pregunta
Continuous versus stage development?
Respuesta
Continuous views emphasize gradual change; stage views describe distinct qualitative shifts.
Tarjeta 275
Pregunta
How can prenatal environment affect later development?
Respuesta
Nutrition, stress, illness, and substance exposure can influence physical and neural development before birth.
Tarjeta 276
Pregunta
Teratogen?
Respuesta
An environmental agent that can disrupt prenatal development, with effects depending on dose, timing, and susceptibility.
Tarjeta 277
Pregunta
Maturation?
Respuesta
Biologically guided growth processes that unfold in a generally predictable sequence.
Tarjeta 278
Pregunta
Stability–change question in development?
Respuesta
It asks which traits persist across life and which change with age or experience.
Tarjeta 279
Pregunta
A researcher predicts that students who sleep at least eight hours will recall more words than students who sleep less. Why is this hypothesis falsifiable?
Respuesta
The groups and recall outcome can be measured, so evidence could show that the predicted difference does not occur.
Tarjeta 280
Pregunta
Which method best tests whether a new study routine causes higher quiz scores?
Respuesta
An experiment that manipulates the routine and randomly assigns participants, because it can support a causal conclusion.
Tarjeta 281
Pregunta
Why do motor milestones follow a common order but different timing?
Respuesta
Maturation shapes the sequence, while biology and experience influence pace.
Tarjeta 282
Pregunta
Fine versus gross motor skills?
Respuesta
Fine skills use small, precise movements; gross skills use larger muscle groups and whole-body movement.
Tarjeta 283
Pregunta
Why are infant reflexes useful to researchers?
Respuesta
Their presence and change can indicate early nervous-system development.
Tarjeta 284
Pregunta
What did the visual-cliff procedure test?
Respuesta
It tested whether infants would cross an apparent drop, providing evidence about depth perception and the influence of locomotor experience.
Tarjeta 285
Pregunta
Puberty?
Respuesta
The period of sexual maturation driven by hormonal and physical changes.
Tarjeta 286
Pregunta
Sensitive period?
Respuesta
A developmental window when experience has an especially strong effect, though learning may remain possible later.
Tarjeta 287
Pregunta
What physical pattern commonly marks the start of adolescence?
Respuesta
A puberty-related growth spurt, with rapid increases in height and weight.
Tarjeta 288
Pregunta
Primary versus secondary sex characteristics?
Respuesta
Primary characteristics are reproductive organs and functions; secondary characteristics are puberty-related traits not directly required for reproduction.
Tarjeta 289
Pregunta
Which method best measures the relationship between adolescents' sleep duration and mood without assigning sleep schedules?
Respuesta
A correlational study, because both variables are measured rather than manipulated.
Tarjeta 290
Pregunta
Older adults score lower than younger adults in one same-time comparison. Which design and alternative explanation limit an aging claim?
Respuesta
The study is cross-sectional, and a cohort effect could explain the difference because the age groups grew up under different conditions.
Tarjeta 291
Pregunta
Researchers test the same people yearly from ages 10 to 20. Which design is this, and what participant-loss risk should they track?
Respuesta
A longitudinal design; attrition can bias the results if those who leave differ from those who remain.
Tarjeta 292
Pregunta
Menarche?
Respuesta
The first menstrual period.
Tarjeta 293
Pregunta
Which method allows an intensive investigation of one person with an exceptionally rare developmental condition?
Respuesta
A case study, which provides depth but may not generalize to a wider population.
Tarjeta 294
Pregunta
About what percentage of scores in a normal distribution lie within one standard deviation of the mean?
Respuesta
About 68%.
Tarjeta 295
Pregunta
A prenatal exposure correlates with later difficulty. What limits a causal claim?
Respuesta
Other parental, health, and environmental variables may account for the association.
Tarjeta 296
Pregunta
Spermarche?
Respuesta
The first ejaculation.
Tarjeta 297
Pregunta
Which method combines results from many studies to estimate an overall effect?
Respuesta
A meta-analysis, which statistically synthesizes findings across studies.
Tarjeta 298
Pregunta
Imprinting?
Respuesta
A rapid form of early learning in which some young animals form an attachment during a sensitive period.
Tarjeta 299
Pregunta
Why can adolescent risk-taking increase?
Respuesta
Reward systems develop earlier than the prefrontal control systems used for planning and inhibition.
Tarjeta 300
Pregunta
Menopause?
Respuesta
The natural end of menstrual cycles, diagnosed after 12 consecutive months without menstruation.
Tarjeta 301
Pregunta
Which method records children's playground behavior without directing or changing it?
Respuesta
Naturalistic observation.
Tarjeta 302
Pregunta
How do mobility, flexibility, and reaction time typically change across later adulthood?
Respuesta
They tend to decline gradually, although health, activity, and individual differences affect the pace.
Tarjeta 303
Pregunta
Gender identity?
Respuesta
A person's internal sense of their gender.
Tarjeta 304
Pregunta
Gender role?
Respuesta
A culture's expectations for behavior associated with gender.
Tarjeta 305
Pregunta
Sex versus gender?
Respuesta
Sex refers to biological traits; gender refers to identities, roles, and social meanings.
Tarjeta 306
Pregunta
Common sensory change in later adulthood?
Respuesta
Vision and hearing sensitivity often decline, though the degree varies widely.
Tarjeta 307
Pregunta
Sexual orientation?
Respuesta
A pattern of romantic or sexual attraction; it is distinct from gender identity.
Tarjeta 308
Pregunta
Gender schema?
Respuesta
A mental framework that organizes information and expectations about gender.
Tarjeta 309
Pregunta
Best broad view of gender development?
Respuesta
Biological, cognitive, social, and cultural influences interact.
Tarjeta 310
Pregunta
Does normal aging cause uniform cognitive decline?
Respuesta
No. Processing speed may slow, while knowledge and expertise can remain stable or grow.
Tarjeta 311
Pregunta
Why shouldn't variation in gender identity or sexual orientation be treated as a disorder?
Respuesta
Variation alone isn't evidence of dysfunction; distress often reflects stigma or discrimination rather than identity.
Tarjeta 312
Pregunta
Schema in cognitive development?
Respuesta
A mental framework used to organize and interpret experience.
Tarjeta 313
Pregunta
Sensorimotor stage?
Respuesta
Infants learn through sensory experience and action and develop object permanence.
Tarjeta 314
Pregunta
Preoperational stage?
Respuesta
Young children use symbols and language but often lack conservation and show egocentric thinking.
Tarjeta 315
Pregunta
Assimilation?
Respuesta
Fitting new information into an existing schema.
Tarjeta 316
Pregunta
A learner cannot solve a puzzle alone but succeeds with a teacher's hints. Where is the task?
Respuesta
In the learner's zone of proximal development.
Tarjeta 317
Pregunta
Animism in preoperational thought?
Respuesta
Attributing life, feelings, or intentions to inanimate objects.
Tarjeta 318
Pregunta
Concrete operational stage?
Respuesta
Children reason logically about concrete events and understand conservation.
Tarjeta 319
Pregunta
Accommodation?
Respuesta
Changing a schema when new information doesn't fit it.
Tarjeta 320
Pregunta
Reversibility in cognitive development?
Respuesta
Understanding that an operation can be mentally undone, a skill associated with concrete operational thought.
Tarjeta 321
Pregunta
How can social learning shape gender expression?
Respuesta
People observe models and receive reinforcement or punishment for gender-related behavior.
Tarjeta 322
Pregunta
A child calls a zebra a horse because it fits an existing animal schema. Which process?
Respuesta
Assimilation.
Tarjeta 323
Pregunta
Language?
Respuesta
A shared, rule-governed system of symbols used to communicate and generate ideas.
Tarjeta 324
Pregunta
Cooing stage?
Respuesta
Early vowel-like sounds that typically appear before babbling.
Tarjeta 325
Pregunta
Babbling stage?
Respuesta
Infants produce repeated speech-like sounds before meaningful words.
Tarjeta 326
Pregunta
One-word stage?
Respuesta
A child uses single words to express whole ideas.
Tarjeta 327
Pregunta
Grammar?
Respuesta
A language's system of rules for combining and interpreting symbols.
Tarjeta 328
Pregunta
A child assumes everyone can see the picture visible only from the child's side of a model. Which limitation does this show?
Respuesta
Egocentrism: difficulty taking another person's visual perspective.
Tarjeta 329
Pregunta
Crystallized intelligence across adulthood?
Respuesta
Accumulated knowledge and verbal skills often remain stable or increase.
Tarjeta 330
Pregunta
A child revises an animal schema after learning that zebras aren't horses. Which process?
Respuesta
Accommodation.
Tarjeta 331
Pregunta
A teacher first models each step, then removes hints as the learner improves. What support strategy is this?
Respuesta
Scaffolding.
Tarjeta 332
Pregunta
A child predicts that someone will search where that person last saw a toy, not where the toy really is. Which ability does this show?
Respuesta
Theory of mind: recognizing that another person can hold a different belief.
Tarjeta 333
Pregunta
Fluid intelligence across adulthood?
Respuesta
Speedy reasoning with novel problems often peaks earlier and may decline gradually.
Tarjeta 334
Pregunta
An infant searches for a toy after it is covered by a cloth. Which ability does this show?
Respuesta
Object permanence: understanding that the toy still exists when it cannot be seen.
Tarjeta 335
Pregunta
Water is poured from a short glass into a taller, narrower glass, and a child says there is more water. Which concept is missing?
Respuesta
Conservation: understanding that quantity remains the same despite a change in appearance.
Tarjeta 336
Pregunta
Formal operational stage?
Respuesta
Adolescents and adults can reason abstractly and test hypothetical possibilities.
Tarjeta 337
Pregunta
Dementia?
Respuesta
A broad syndrome involving cognitive decline that interferes with daily life; it is not an inevitable part of normal aging.
Tarjeta 338
Pregunta
Phoneme?
Respuesta
The smallest distinctive sound unit in a language.
Tarjeta 339
Pregunta
Bronfenbrenner's ecological systems view?
Respuesta
Development reflects interactions between a person and nested social environments over time.
Tarjeta 340
Pregunta
Temperament?
Respuesta
Early, biologically influenced patterns of emotional reactivity and self-regulation.
Tarjeta 341
Pregunta
Attachment?
Respuesta
An enduring emotional bond that supports proximity and security.
Tarjeta 342
Pregunta
Erikson's infancy conflict?
Respuesta
Trust versus mistrust: dependable care supports a basic sense of security.
Tarjeta 343
Pregunta
Microsystem?
Respuesta
Immediate settings and relationships, such as family, school, peers, and work.
Tarjeta 344
Pregunta
Erikson's toddler conflict?
Respuesta
Autonomy versus shame and doubt: supported self-control builds independence.
Tarjeta 345
Pregunta
Erikson's early-childhood conflict?
Respuesta
Initiative versus guilt: directing activities and plans supports purpose.
Tarjeta 346
Pregunta
Erikson's school-age conflict?
Respuesta
Industry versus inferiority: mastering valued skills supports competence.
Tarjeta 347
Pregunta
Mesosystem?
Respuesta
Connections among a person's microsystems, such as communication between family and school.
Tarjeta 348
Pregunta
Erikson's adolescent conflict?
Respuesta
Identity versus role confusion: exploring and integrating roles supports identity.
Tarjeta 349
Pregunta
Erikson's young-adult conflict?
Respuesta
Intimacy versus isolation: forming close, committed relationships.
Tarjeta 350
Pregunta
Erikson's middle-adult conflict?
Respuesta
Generativity versus stagnation: contributing to others and the next generation.
Tarjeta 351
Pregunta
Exosystem?
Respuesta
Settings that affect a person indirectly, such as a caregiver's workplace.
Tarjeta 352
Pregunta
Morpheme?
Respuesta
The smallest unit that carries meaning.
Tarjeta 353
Pregunta
Telegraphic speech?
Respuesta
Early short phrases that contain essential words while omitting smaller grammatical words.
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Tarjeta 354
Pregunta
How do nonverbal gestures support language development?
Respuesta
Pointing, gaze, expression, and movement communicate meaning before and alongside spoken words.
Tarjeta 355
Pregunta
Macrosystem?
Respuesta
The wider culture, values, laws, customs, and economic conditions surrounding development.
Tarjeta 356
Pregunta
Semantics?
Respuesta
The meanings of words and sentences.
Tarjeta 357
Pregunta
A child says “goed” after learning the usual past-tense pattern. What is this?
Respuesta
Overgeneralization: applying a language rule where an exception is required.
Tarjeta 358
Pregunta
What does a sensitive period for language imply?
Respuesta
Early exposure supports fluent development, though later learning remains possible.
Tarjeta 359
Pregunta
Does language completely determine thought?
Respuesta
No. Language can shape attention and categorization, but thought also occurs without words.
Tarjeta 360
Pregunta
Syntax?
Respuesta
Rules for arranging words into phrases and sentences.
Tarjeta 361
Pregunta
A child explores while a caregiver is present, seeks contact at reunion, and is readily comforted. Which attachment pattern fits?
Respuesta
Secure attachment.
Tarjeta 362
Pregunta
How does the behavioral perspective explain behavior?
Respuesta
It focuses on observable behavior learned through conditioning, reinforcement, punishment, and environmental cues.
Tarjeta 363
Pregunta
Authoritative parenting?
Respuesta
High warmth with clear, consistent expectations and age-appropriate autonomy.
Tarjeta 364
Pregunta
Identity achievement?
Respuesta
A person makes commitments after meaningful exploration.
Tarjeta 365
Pregunta
Avoidant attachment pattern?
Respuesta
The child shows little contact-seeking and tends to avoid or ignore the caregiver at reunion.
Tarjeta 366
Pregunta
Classical conditioning?
Respuesta
Learning that one stimulus predicts another, so a previously neutral stimulus elicits a response.
Tarjeta 367
Pregunta
Unconditioned stimulus?
Respuesta
A stimulus that naturally produces a response without prior learning.
Tarjeta 368
Pregunta
Unconditioned response?
Respuesta
The unlearned response naturally produced by an unconditioned stimulus.
Tarjeta 369
Pregunta
Conditioned stimulus?
Respuesta
A previously neutral stimulus that elicits a learned response after association.
Tarjeta 370
Pregunta
Conditioned response?
Respuesta
The learned response to a conditioned stimulus.
Tarjeta 371
Pregunta
Acquisition in classical conditioning?
Respuesta
The initial learning period when the neutral stimulus becomes associated with the unconditioned stimulus.
Tarjeta 372
Pregunta
During acquisition, when should the conditioned stimulus usually appear relative to the unconditioned stimulus?
Respuesta
The conditioned stimulus should appear shortly before the unconditioned stimulus so it predicts what comes next.
Tarjeta 373
Pregunta
Authoritarian parenting?
Respuesta
Low warmth with strict control and little discussion.
Tarjeta 374
Pregunta
Identity diffusion?
Respuesta
A person has neither actively explored alternatives nor made firm commitments.
Tarjeta 375
Pregunta
Extinction in classical conditioning?
Respuesta
The conditioned response weakens when the conditioned stimulus repeatedly appears without the unconditioned stimulus.
Tarjeta 376
Pregunta
Anxious-resistant attachment pattern?
Respuesta
The child seeks contact but remains distressed or resists comfort at reunion.
Tarjeta 377
Pregunta
Permissive parenting?
Respuesta
High warmth with few demands or limits.
Tarjeta 378
Pregunta
Parallel play?
Respuesta
Young children play beside one another with similar materials but little direct coordination.
Tarjeta 379
Pregunta
Imaginary audience?
Respuesta
An adolescent's belief that other people are constantly noticing and evaluating them.
Tarjeta 380
Pregunta
Identity foreclosure?
Respuesta
A person commits without exploring alternatives, often adopting others' expectations.
Tarjeta 381
Pregunta
Disorganized attachment pattern?
Respuesta
The child shows contradictory, confused, or fearful behavior without a consistent reunion strategy.
Tarjeta 382
Pregunta
Neglectful parenting?
Respuesta
Low warmth and low control or involvement.
Tarjeta 383
Pregunta
Chronosystem?
Respuesta
Life transitions and historical changes that alter development over time.
Tarjeta 384
Pregunta
Why is pretend play developmentally useful?
Respuesta
It lets children practice symbols, roles, perspective-taking, and social rules.
Tarjeta 385
Pregunta
Personal fable?
Respuesta
An adolescent's sense that their experiences are unique and that ordinary risks may not apply to them.
Tarjeta 386
Pregunta
Identity moratorium?
Respuesta
A person is actively exploring alternatives without yet making a stable commitment.
Tarjeta 387
Pregunta
Best claim about adverse childhood experiences?
Respuesta
They can raise later health and relationship risks, but they don't determine an individual's outcome.
Tarjeta 388
Pregunta
Separation anxiety in infancy?
Respuesta
Distress when a familiar caregiver leaves; it is common during part of typical development.
Tarjeta 389
Pregunta
What did infant-monkey research suggest about attachment?
Respuesta
Comforting physical contact can be a stronger attachment cue than food alone.
Tarjeta 390
Pregunta
Which research method does the Strange Situation use to assess attachment behavior?
Respuesta
Structured observation: researchers record behavior during standardized separations and reunions.
Tarjeta 391
Pregunta
Emerging adulthood?
Respuesta
A transitional period, often from the late teens through the twenties, marked by identity exploration and changing roles.
Tarjeta 392
Pregunta
Social clock?
Respuesta
Culturally shaped expectations about when major life events should occur.
Tarjeta 393
Pregunta
Erikson's later-adult conflict?
Respuesta
Integrity versus despair: evaluating life with acceptance rather than regret.
Tarjeta 394
Pregunta
Possible selves?
Respuesta
Mental images of who a person might become, hopes to become, or fears becoming.
Tarjeta 395
Pregunta
Stimulus generalization?
Respuesta
Stimuli similar to the conditioned stimulus also trigger the conditioned response.
Tarjeta 396
Pregunta
Operant conditioning?
Respuesta
Learning in which consequences change the future frequency of voluntary behavior.
Tarjeta 397
Pregunta
Law of effect?
Respuesta
Behaviors followed by satisfying consequences become more likely, while behaviors followed by unpleasant consequences become less likely.
Tarjeta 398
Pregunta
Spontaneous recovery?
Respuesta
An extinguished conditioned response briefly returns after a rest period.
Tarjeta 399
Pregunta
Stimulus discrimination?
Respuesta
Learning to respond differently to the conditioned stimulus and similar stimuli.
Tarjeta 400
Pregunta
Reinforcement?
Respuesta
Any consequence that increases a behavior.
Tarjeta 401
Pregunta
Higher-order conditioning?
Respuesta
An established conditioned stimulus helps a new neutral stimulus become conditioned without direct pairing with the original unconditioned stimulus.
Tarjeta 402
Pregunta
Counterconditioning?
Respuesta
Replacing an unwanted conditioned response by pairing the trigger with a new, incompatible response.
Tarjeta 403
Pregunta
Habituation?
Respuesta
A reduced response after repeated exposure to a harmless, unchanged stimulus.
Tarjeta 404
Pregunta
Punishment?
Respuesta
Any consequence that decreases a behavior.
Tarjeta 405
Pregunta
Partial reinforcement?
Respuesta
Reinforcing only some responses; learning is slower, but behavior resists extinction.
Tarjeta 406
Pregunta
Why can taste aversion form after one delayed pairing?
Respuesta
Biological preparedness makes certain food–illness associations especially easy to learn.
Tarjeta 407
Pregunta
Most conditioning trials take 2–6 attempts, but one participant needs 24. What shape will the trial-count distribution likely have?
Respuesta
It will be right-skewed because the unusually high value stretches the upper tail.
Tarjeta 408
Pregunta
Participants may encounter distressing images in a learning study. What must an institutional review board evaluate before approval?
Respuesta
Whether the scientific value justifies the risks and whether safeguards reduce those risks to an acceptable level.
Tarjeta 409
Pregunta
Fixed-ratio schedule?
Respuesta
Reinforcement follows a set number of responses.
Tarjeta 410
Pregunta
Observational learning?
Respuesta
Learning by watching others and the consequences they receive.
Tarjeta 411
Pregunta
A teacher adds praise after completed homework, and homework completion increases. Which consequence is this?
Respuesta
Positive reinforcement.
Tarjeta 412
Pregunta
Primary reinforcer?
Respuesta
A naturally rewarding stimulus tied to biological needs, such as food when hungry.
Tarjeta 413
Pregunta
Variable-ratio schedule?
Respuesta
Reinforcement follows an unpredictable number of responses, producing persistent responding.
Tarjeta 414
Pregunta
Modeling?
Respuesta
Performing a behavior after observing it in another person.
Tarjeta 415
Pregunta
Which response pattern is typical of a fixed-ratio schedule?
Respuesta
A high response rate followed by a brief pause after each reward.
Tarjeta 416
Pregunta
Fastening a seat belt stops an unpleasant alarm, making future fastening more likely. Which consequence is this?
Respuesta
Negative reinforcement.
Tarjeta 417
Pregunta
Conditioned reinforcer?
Respuesta
A learned reward that gains value through association, such as money or praise.
Tarjeta 418
Pregunta
A child sees a classmate praised for sharing and then shares more often. Which process may explain the change?
Respuesta
Vicarious reinforcement.
Tarjeta 419
Pregunta
Fixed-interval schedule?
Respuesta
The first response after a set amount of time is reinforced.
Tarjeta 420
Pregunta
Which response pattern is typical of a variable-ratio schedule?
Respuesta
A high, steady response rate with little or no pause after rewards.
Tarjeta 421
Pregunta
A driver receives a fine, and speeding decreases. Which consequence is this?
Respuesta
Positive punishment.
Tarjeta 422
Pregunta
Shaping?
Respuesta
Reinforcing successive approximations toward a target behavior.
Tarjeta 423
Pregunta
Extinction in operant conditioning?
Respuesta
A behavior weakens when it no longer produces reinforcement.
Tarjeta 424
Pregunta
Variable-interval schedule?
Respuesta
The first response after an unpredictable amount of time is reinforced.
Tarjeta 425
Pregunta
A teenager loses gaming access, and missed curfews decrease. Which consequence is this?
Respuesta
Negative punishment.
Tarjeta 426
Pregunta
Learned helplessness?
Respuesta
After repeated uncontrollable negative events, a person or animal stops trying to escape even when escape becomes possible.
Tarjeta 427
Pregunta
Continuous reinforcement?
Respuesta
Reinforcing every occurrence of a behavior; learning is fast, but extinction is also fast.
Tarjeta 428
Pregunta
A response record rises slowly after each reward, then accelerates as the next fixed time approaches. Which schedule produced this scalloped pattern?
Respuesta
A fixed-interval schedule.
Tarjeta 429
Pregunta
Discriminative stimulus?
Respuesta
A cue that signals when a particular response is likely to be reinforced.
Tarjeta 430
Pregunta
Operant generalization versus discrimination?
Respuesta
Generalization spreads a learned response to similar cues; discrimination limits it to cues that signal reinforcement.
Tarjeta 431
Pregunta
Instinctive drift?
Respuesta
A learned behavior shifts toward an animal's biologically predisposed behavior.
Tarjeta 432
Pregunta
Which response pattern is typical of a variable-interval schedule?
Respuesta
A steady, moderate response rate because reinforcement can become available at unpredictable times.
Tarjeta 433
Pregunta
How can superstitious behavior develop through operant conditioning?
Respuesta
A coincidental reward can reinforce a behavior that didn't actually cause the outcome.
Tarjeta 434
Pregunta
How does similarity to a model affect observational learning?
Respuesta
Observers are often more likely to attend to and imitate models they see as similar or relevant.
Tarjeta 435
Pregunta
Vicarious conditioning?
Respuesta
Learning an emotional response by observing another person's reaction to a stimulus.
Tarjeta 436
Pregunta
A rat makes 12, 13, 11, and 12 responses in four equal time blocks, with rewards delivered at unpredictable times. Which schedule best fits this steady pattern?
Respuesta
A variable-interval schedule.
Tarjeta 437
Pregunta
Children imitate a rewarded model more than a punished model. Supported claim?
Respuesta
Observed consequences can influence whether learned behavior is performed.
Tarjeta 438
Pregunta
Why randomly assign children to watch either an aggressive or a calm model?
Respuesta
Random assignment helps balance preexisting differences between groups, strengthening a causal inference about the model's effect.
Tarjeta 439
Pregunta
Latent learning?
Respuesta
Learning that occurs without obvious reinforcement and appears later when there is an incentive.
Tarjeta 440
Pregunta
Cognitive map?
Respuesta
A mental representation of the layout of an environment.
Tarjeta 441
Pregunta
Insight learning?
Respuesta
A sudden cognitive solution without visible trial-and-error steps.
Tarjeta 442
Pregunta
Biological preparedness?
Respuesta
An evolved readiness to learn some associations more easily than others.
Tarjeta 443
Pregunta
What can mirror-neuron activity show?
Respuesta
Some neural systems respond during both action and observation, though this alone doesn't explain all imitation or empathy.
Tarjeta 444
Pregunta
Attribution?
Respuesta
An explanation for the cause of a person's behavior or an event.
Tarjeta 445
Pregunta
Attitude?
Respuesta
An evaluation of a person, object, issue, or behavior, involving beliefs, feelings, and action tendencies.
Tarjeta 446
Pregunta
Upward social comparison?
Respuesta
Comparing oneself with someone doing better, which can inspire improvement or reduce satisfaction.
Tarjeta 447
Pregunta
Optimistic explanatory style?
Respuesta
Explaining setbacks as temporary, specific, and changeable rather than permanent and global.
Tarjeta 448
Pregunta
Situational attribution?
Respuesta
Explaining behavior through external circumstances or social context.
Tarjeta 449
Pregunta
A person who values health keeps vaping and feels pressure to change either the behavior or the belief. What is this discomfort?
Respuesta
Cognitive dissonance.
Tarjeta 450
Pregunta
Downward social comparison?
Respuesta
Comparing oneself with someone doing worse, which can protect self-evaluation.
Tarjeta 451
Pregunta
Internal locus of control?
Respuesta
The belief that one's actions strongly influence outcomes.
Tarjeta 452
Pregunta
Dispositional attribution?
Respuesta
Explaining behavior through internal traits, motives, or abilities.
Tarjeta 453
Pregunta
Pessimistic explanatory style?
Respuesta
Explaining setbacks as lasting, widespread, and rooted in personal failure.
Tarjeta 454
Pregunta
Relative deprivation?
Respuesta
Feeling disadvantaged by comparing one's situation with the situation one believes others have.
Tarjeta 455
Pregunta
External locus of control?
Respuesta
The belief that outcomes mainly depend on luck, fate, or powerful outside forces.
Tarjeta 456
Pregunta
Fundamental attribution error?
Respuesta
Overestimating personality and underestimating the situation when explaining someone else's behavior.
Tarjeta 457
Pregunta
Halo effect?
Respuesta
One favorable trait shapes an overly positive overall judgment of a person.
Tarjeta 458
Pregunta
Self-fulfilling prophecy?
Respuesta
An expectation changes behavior in ways that help make the expected outcome occur.
Tarjeta 459
Pregunta
Mere-exposure effect?
Respuesta
Repeated exposure to a neutral stimulus can increase liking.
Tarjeta 460
Pregunta
A person blames their own lateness on traffic but another person's lateness on carelessness. Which attribution pattern is this?
Respuesta
The actor–observer difference.
Tarjeta 461
Pregunta
A voter compares evidence and checks the logic of a policy argument. Which persuasion route is being used?
Respuesta
The central route.
Tarjeta 462
Pregunta
Effort justification?
Respuesta
Valuing an outcome more after investing substantial effort in it, which reduces dissonance.
Tarjeta 463
Pregunta
Stereotype?
Respuesta
A generalized belief about members of a group.
Tarjeta 464
Pregunta
A student credits skill for an A but blames an unfair test for an F. Which bias does this show?
Respuesta
Self-serving bias.
Tarjeta 465
Pregunta
A shopper favors an unfamiliar product because a popular celebrity endorses it. Which persuasion route is being used?
Respuesta
The peripheral route.
Tarjeta 466
Pregunta
Someone praises a dull task for a tiny reward, then reports liking it more. Which dissonance principle fits?
Respuesta
Insufficient justification: the small reward provides too little external explanation, so attitude change reduces dissonance.
Tarjeta 467
Pregunta
Prejudice?
Respuesta
An unjustified attitude or emotional response toward a group and its members.
Tarjeta 468
Pregunta
The same 40 workers complete equal-length tasks under both workloads:

Workload Errors

Low 2

High 8

Which attribution is better supported?
Respuesta
A situational attribution is better supported: with the same workers and equal exposure, the high-workload condition has more errors, though the table alone doesn't prove causation.
Tarjeta 469
Pregunta
Why does source credibility affect persuasion?
Respuesta
People are more likely to accept a message from a source seen as knowledgeable and trustworthy.
Tarjeta 470
Pregunta
Conformity?
Respuesta
Adjusting behavior or beliefs to match a group.
Tarjeta 471
Pregunta
Several witnesses each wait for someone else to help during an emergency. Which effect is this?
Respuesta
The bystander effect.
Tarjeta 472
Pregunta
Diffusion of responsibility?
Respuesta
Each person feels less personally responsible when others are available to act.
Tarjeta 473
Pregunta
How can taking on a role affect attitude?
Respuesta
Repeated role-consistent behavior can gradually shift beliefs and self-perception.
Tarjeta 474
Pregunta
In-group bias?
Respuesta
Favoring one's own group over other groups.
Tarjeta 475
Pregunta
After agreeing to display a small safety sticker, a resident later agrees to place a large sign. Which technique is this?
Respuesta
The foot-in-the-door technique.
Tarjeta 476
Pregunta
A researcher recruits the first 60 students leaving one school cafeteria. What sampling method is this, and what is the main limit?
Respuesta
Convenience sampling; the sample may not represent the school's students or a broader population as well as a random sample would.
Tarjeta 477
Pregunta
When do attitudes best predict behavior?
Respuesta
When the attitude is specific, accessible, personally important, and social pressure is limited.
Tarjeta 478
Pregunta
Discrimination?
Respuesta
Unjustified behavior toward people because of group membership.
Tarjeta 479
Pregunta
Out-group homogeneity effect?
Respuesta
Perceiving members of another group as more alike than members of one's own group.
Tarjeta 480
Pregunta
After refusing an extreme request, a person agrees to a smaller related request. Which technique is this?
Respuesta
The door-in-the-face technique.
Tarjeta 481
Pregunta
A study finds r = +0.72 between attention to message evidence and attitude change. What does the coefficient show?
Respuesta
A strong positive association: greater attention tends to accompany greater attitude change, but the correlation does not establish causation.
Tarjeta 482
Pregunta
Persuasion ratings cluster near 2 and 9 on a 10-point scale, with few scores near 5. What distribution shape does this suggest?
Respuesta
A bimodal distribution, with two distinct peaks.
Tarjeta 483
Pregunta
Just-world belief?
Respuesta
The assumption that people generally get what they deserve, which can encourage victim blaming.
Tarjeta 484
Pregunta
Implicit attitude?
Respuesta
An automatic evaluation that can affect responses without deliberate awareness.
Tarjeta 485
Pregunta
Ethnocentrism?
Respuesta
Judging other cultures by the standards of one's own culture and treating one's own as superior.
Tarjeta 486
Pregunta
How do confirmation bias and belief perseverance maintain an attitude?
Respuesta
People may favor supporting evidence and retain the belief even after its original support is discredited.
Tarjeta 487
Pregunta
Normative social influence?
Respuesta
Conforming to gain approval or avoid rejection.
Tarjeta 488
Pregunta
Psychodynamic view of personality?
Respuesta
Unconscious conflicts and motives influence personality and behavior.
Tarjeta 489
Pregunta
Norm of reciprocity?
Respuesta
The expectation that people should return help or favors.
Tarjeta 490
Pregunta
Individualism?
Respuesta
A cultural orientation that gives greater priority to personal goals, autonomy, and individual identity.
Tarjeta 491
Pregunta
Informational social influence?
Respuesta
Conforming because the group is treated as a source of accurate information.
Tarjeta 492
Pregunta
Id?
Respuesta
The psychodynamic component driven by immediate gratification and the pleasure principle.
Tarjeta 493
Pregunta
Altruism?
Respuesta
Helping intended to benefit another person without requiring a personal reward.
Tarjeta 494
Pregunta
Social norm?
Respuesta
A group's shared expectation about acceptable behavior.
Tarjeta 495
Pregunta
What tends to increase conformity?
Respuesta
Unanimity, group size up to a point, public responses, ambiguity, and group importance.
Tarjeta 496
Pregunta
Ego?
Respuesta
The psychodynamic component that manages reality and balances competing demands.
Tarjeta 497
Pregunta
A skilled runner improves before a crowd, but a beginner makes more errors. Which group effect fits?
Respuesta
Social facilitation: an audience strengthens the dominant response.
Tarjeta 498
Pregunta
Collectivism?
Respuesta
A cultural orientation that gives greater priority to group goals, interdependence, and shared identity.
Tarjeta 499
Pregunta
Obedience?
Respuesta
Changing behavior in response to a direct command from an authority.
Tarjeta 500
Pregunta
Superego?
Respuesta
The psychodynamic component representing internalized moral standards.
Tarjeta 501
Pregunta
A person continues acting as if a painful diagnosis cannot be real despite clear evidence. Which defense mechanism fits?
Respuesta
Denial.
Tarjeta 502
Pregunta
Social-responsibility norm?
Respuesta
The expectation that people should help those who depend on them or need assistance.
Tarjeta 503
Pregunta
How does proximity affect attraction?
Respuesta
Frequent contact creates opportunities for familiarity and relationship development.
Tarjeta 504
Pregunta
What tends to increase obedience?
Respuesta
A legitimate nearby authority, gradual escalation, institutional support, and distance from the affected person.
Tarjeta 505
Pregunta
After an argument with a supervisor, an employee snaps at a roommate. Which defense mechanism fits?
Respuesta
Displacement.
Tarjeta 506
Pregunta
Social loafing?
Respuesta
Exerting less effort when individual contributions to a group task aren't identifiable.
Tarjeta 507
Pregunta
Multiculturalism?
Respuesta
Recognizing and supporting distinct cultural identities within a shared society or institution.
Tarjeta 508
Pregunta
How does similarity affect attraction?
Respuesta
Shared attitudes, values, and interests often increase liking.
Tarjeta 509
Pregunta
A person who feels hostile insists that everyone else is hostile toward them. Which defense mechanism fits?
Respuesta
Projection.
Tarjeta 510
Pregunta
Helping falls as group size rises. Best explanation?
Respuesta
Responsibility diffuses across more bystanders; the result doesn't show that groups eliminate empathy.
Tarjeta 511
Pregunta
Deindividuation?
Respuesta
Reduced self-awareness and restraint in an anonymous or arousing group setting.
Tarjeta 512
Pregunta
Group polarization?
Respuesta
Discussion strengthens the group's initial average tendency.
Tarjeta 513
Pregunta
After being rejected, an applicant says the opportunity was worthless anyway. Which defense mechanism fits?
Respuesta
Rationalization.
Tarjeta 514
Pregunta
A cohesive team ignores warnings and pressures doubters to preserve agreement. Which process is this?
Respuesta
Groupthink.
Tarjeta 515
Pregunta
Pluralistic ignorance?
Respuesta
People privately reject a norm or perceive danger but assume others' calm behavior means it is accepted or safe.
Tarjeta 516
Pregunta
Social trap?
Respuesta
Individuals pursue short-term self-interest that produces a worse long-term outcome for everyone.
Tarjeta 517
Pregunta
Reaction formation?
Respuesta
Expressing the opposite of an unacceptable impulse.
Tarjeta 518
Pregunta
Superordinate goal?
Respuesta
A shared goal that competing groups can reach only through cooperation.
Tarjeta 519
Pregunta
False-consensus effect?
Respuesta
Overestimating how widely other people share one's beliefs or behavior.
Tarjeta 520
Pregunta
Industrial-organizational psychology?
Respuesta
Applying psychological science to work, organizations, hiring, performance, and employee well-being.
Tarjeta 521
Pregunta
Repression?
Respuesta
Unconsciously blocking distressing thoughts or impulses from awareness.
Tarjeta 522
Pregunta
Burnout?
Respuesta
Work-related exhaustion, detachment or cynicism, and reduced sense of effectiveness after chronic stress.
Tarjeta 523
Pregunta
Unconditional positive regard?
Respuesta
Acceptance and respect that aren't dependent on meeting another person's conditions.
Tarjeta 524
Pregunta
Trait?
Respuesta
A relatively stable tendency to think, feel, or behave in a certain way.
Tarjeta 525
Pregunta
Regression as a defense mechanism?
Respuesta
Reverting to an earlier pattern of behavior when facing stress or conflict.
Tarjeta 526
Pregunta
Reciprocal determinism?
Respuesta
Behavior, personal factors, and environment influence one another.
Tarjeta 527
Pregunta
Self-efficacy?
Respuesta
Belief in one's ability to perform a specific task or meet a challenge.
Tarjeta 528
Pregunta
Self-concept in humanistic theory?
Respuesta
A person's organized understanding of who they are.
Tarjeta 529
Pregunta
Sublimation as a defense mechanism?
Respuesta
Redirecting an unacceptable impulse into a socially valued activity.
Tarjeta 530
Pregunta
A person seeks novel ideas, art, and unfamiliar experiences. Which Big Five trait is most evident?
Respuesta
Openness.
Tarjeta 531
Pregunta
Personality inventory?
Respuesta
A standardized self-report questionnaire used to measure traits or patterns.
Tarjeta 532
Pregunta
Self-actualizing tendency?
Respuesta
The humanistic idea that people are motivated to grow and fulfill their capacities.
Tarjeta 533
Pregunta
Self-esteem?
Respuesta
A person's overall evaluation of their worth or value.
Tarjeta 534
Pregunta
Instinct in motivation research?
Respuesta
An innate, typically fixed behavior pattern in nonhuman animals; this framework doesn't classify human motivation as instinctual.
Tarjeta 535
Pregunta
A person plans carefully, meets deadlines, and follows through. Which Big Five trait is most evident?
Respuesta
Conscientiousness.
Tarjeta 536
Pregunta
Projective test?
Respuesta
An ambiguous stimulus used to invite responses thought to reflect inner themes; reliability and validity can be limited.
Tarjeta 537
Pregunta
How does factor analysis help trait research?
Respuesta
It identifies clusters of correlated behaviors or questionnaire items that may reflect broader traits.
Tarjeta 538
Pregunta
Drive-reduction theory?
Respuesta
A physiological need creates arousal that motivates behavior to restore balance.
Tarjeta 539
Pregunta
A person is sociable, assertive, and energized by group interaction. Which Big Five trait is most evident?
Respuesta
Extraversion.
Tarjeta 540
Pregunta
Person–situation debate?
Respuesta
It asks how much behavior reflects stable traits versus changing contexts.
Tarjeta 541
Pregunta
A training study reports Cohen's d = 0.65 for improvement in self-efficacy. What does this statistic describe?
Respuesta
The standardized size of the group difference; 0.65 is commonly interpreted as a moderate effect, not proof that the result will matter equally in every setting.
Tarjeta 542
Pregunta
Homeostasis?
Respuesta
The body's tendency to maintain a stable internal state.
Tarjeta 543
Pregunta
Incentive theory?
Respuesta
External rewards or goals pull behavior toward them.
Tarjeta 544
Pregunta
Big Five agreeableness?
Respuesta
Compassion, trust, and cooperativeness.
Tarjeta 545
Pregunta
A student retakes a questionnaire after an unusually low self-efficacy score and scores closer to their usual level. What statistical tendency may explain part of the change?
Respuesta
Regression toward the mean: an extreme score is often followed by a less extreme score because temporary influences are unlikely to repeat exactly.
Tarjeta 546
Pregunta
A student must choose between two appealing internships. Which motivational conflict is this?
Respuesta
An approach–approach conflict.
Tarjeta 547
Pregunta
Arousal theory of motivation?
Respuesta
People seek a personally suitable level of stimulation.
Tarjeta 548
Pregunta
Big Five emotional stability?
Respuesta
A tendency toward calm and resilience; it is the inverse of neuroticism.
Tarjeta 549
Pregunta
What regulates hunger?
Respuesta
Biological signals such as ghrelin and leptin interact with learning, culture, stress, and food cues.
Tarjeta 550
Pregunta
Three broad components of emotion?
Respuesta
Physiological arousal, expressive behavior, and conscious experience or appraisal.
Tarjeta 551
Pregunta
Self-determination theory?
Respuesta
Motivation grows when autonomy, competence, and relatedness are supported.
Tarjeta 552
Pregunta
Emotion regulation?
Respuesta
Processes used to influence which emotions arise, when they arise, and how they are expressed.
Tarjeta 553
Pregunta
Sensation-seeking?
Respuesta
A tendency to pursue novel, varied, or intense experiences, sometimes despite risk.
Tarjeta 554
Pregunta
Cognitive appraisal in emotion?
Respuesta
Interpreting what an event means for one's goals, safety, or well-being.
Tarjeta 555
Pregunta
Intrinsic motivation?
Respuesta
Doing an activity for its own interest or satisfaction.
Tarjeta 556
Pregunta
Display rules?
Respuesta
Cultural norms that shape when and how emotions are expressed.
Tarjeta 557
Pregunta
Arousal and performance relationship?
Respuesta
Moderate arousal often supports difficult tasks, while higher arousal can help simple or well-learned tasks.
Tarjeta 558
Pregunta
A promotion offers higher pay but requires an unwanted move. Which motivational conflict is this?
Respuesta
An approach–avoidance conflict.
Tarjeta 559
Pregunta
Extrinsic motivation?
Respuesta
Doing an activity for an external reward or to avoid punishment.
Tarjeta 560
Pregunta
Achievement motivation?
Respuesta
The drive to meet standards, master tasks, and pursue success.
Tarjeta 561
Pregunta
Four sensation-seeking dimensions?
Respuesta
Thrill and adventure seeking, experience seeking, disinhibition, and boredom susceptibility.
Tarjeta 562
Pregunta
A person must either pay a fine or complete an unpleasant course. Which motivational conflict is this?
Respuesta
An avoidance–avoidance conflict.
Tarjeta 563
Pregunta
Overjustification effect?
Respuesta
Expected external rewards can reduce intrinsic interest in an activity already enjoyed.
Tarjeta 564
Pregunta
Belongingness motivation?
Respuesta
The drive to form and maintain stable, positive relationships with other people.
Tarjeta 565
Pregunta
Study time changed after students chose their own topic:

Condition Mean minutes

Assigned topic 34

Chosen topic 47

What is the observed mean difference?
Respuesta
13 minutes more in the chosen-topic condition; the table alone does not show whether the difference is statistically significant.
Tarjeta 566
Pregunta
Facial-feedback effect?
Respuesta
Facial expressions can influence the emotion a person experiences.
Tarjeta 567
Pregunta
Can bodily arousal occur before conscious interpretation?
Respuesta
Yes. Some emotional responses begin quickly, while later appraisal shapes the experience.
Tarjeta 568
Pregunta
A speaker reframes a racing heart as readiness rather than danger. Which emotion-regulation strategy is this?
Respuesta
Cognitive reappraisal.
Tarjeta 569
Pregunta
Broaden-and-build view?
Respuesta
Positive emotion can widen attention and action possibilities, helping build lasting resources.
Tarjeta 570
Pregunta
Which emotions often appear across cultures?
Respuesta
Anger, disgust, sadness, happiness, surprise, and fear, though findings on universality are mixed.
Tarjeta 571
Pregunta
How can the same arousal become different emotions?
Respuesta
Context and cognitive interpretation can label similar physiological arousal differently.
Tarjeta 572
Pregunta
Expressive suppression?
Respuesta
Inhibiting the outward display of emotion after it has arisen.
Tarjeta 573
Pregunta
How does acute stress affect the body?
Respuesta
It activates sympathetic and hormonal responses that mobilize energy for immediate demands.
Tarjeta 574
Pregunta
Cultures differ in public emotional expression. What shouldn't be concluded?
Respuesta
That people in one culture don't experience the emotion; display rules can alter expression.
Tarjeta 575
Pregunta
In a medication study, neither participants nor outcome raters know who receives the active drug or an inactive pill. What two safeguards are present?
Respuesta
A placebo control and double-blinding, which reduce expectancy effects and observer bias.
Tarjeta 576
Pregunta
A scatterplot rises from lower left to upper right, with points close to a line. What relationship does it show?
Respuesta
A strong positive correlation: higher values of one variable tend to occur with higher values of the other.
Tarjeta 577
Pregunta
Health psychology?
Respuesta
The study of how biological, psychological, and social factors affect health and illness.
Tarjeta 578
Pregunta
Positive psychology?
Respuesta
The scientific study of strengths, well-being, and conditions that help people and communities thrive.
Tarjeta 579
Pregunta
Stress?
Respuesta
The process of appraising and responding to events viewed as threatening or demanding.
Tarjeta 580
Pregunta
A study records stress ratings from 1 to 10 and also collects open-ended descriptions. Which data are quantitative and which are qualitative?
Respuesta
The numeric ratings are quantitative; the written descriptions are qualitative.
Tarjeta 581
Pregunta
Why do sleep, exercise, and nutrition matter to health psychology?
Respuesta
They are behaviors that interact with stress and biology to influence health outcomes.
Tarjeta 582
Pregunta
Resilience?
Respuesta
Adapting or recovering after adversity; it is a process, not a guarantee of being unaffected.
Tarjeta 583
Pregunta
Stressor?
Respuesta
An event or condition that challenges a person's ability to cope.
Tarjeta 584
Pregunta
General adaptation syndrome?
Respuesta
A three-phase pattern of alarm, resistance, and exhaustion under prolonged stress.
Tarjeta 585
Pregunta
A worker makes a schedule and asks for resources to reduce a controllable workload. Which coping approach is this?
Respuesta
Problem-focused coping.
Tarjeta 586
Pregunta
A stress study uses nonhuman animals. What ethical duties apply?
Respuesta
Researchers need scientific justification, humane care, the least possible pain and distress, and oversight by an institutional animal care and use committee.
Tarjeta 587
Pregunta
A student first judges whether an upcoming exam threatens an important goal. Which appraisal is this?
Respuesta
Primary appraisal.
Tarjeta 588
Pregunta
What happens during the alarm phase of general adaptation syndrome?
Respuesta
A fight, flight, or freeze response mobilizes resources when the stressor is first encountered.
Tarjeta 589
Pregunta
How can major trauma and daily hassles both create stress?
Respuesta
One can overwhelm through intensity, while repeated smaller demands can accumulate over time.
Tarjeta 590
Pregunta
A person uses breathing and social support to manage feelings about an unchangeable loss. Which coping approach is this?
Respuesta
Emotion-focused coping.
Tarjeta 591
Pregunta
The student next considers available study time, tutoring, and coping options. Which appraisal is this?
Respuesta
Secondary appraisal.
Tarjeta 592
Pregunta
Why can prolonged exhaustion increase illness risk?
Respuesta
Stress resources are depleted, and sustained physiological activation can weaken health and immune function.
Tarjeta 593
Pregunta
Adverse childhood experiences?
Respuesta
Potentially traumatic childhood conditions linked with higher later health risks, without determining any one person's outcome.
Tarjeta 594
Pregunta
How can social support protect health?
Respuesta
It provides practical help, belonging, perspective, and a buffer against stress.
Tarjeta 595
Pregunta
Eustress versus distress?
Respuesta
Eustress is experienced as motivating or manageable; distress is experienced as harmful or overwhelming.
Tarjeta 596
Pregunta
Tend-and-befriend response?
Respuesta
Coping with stress by caring for needs and seeking supportive connection, a pattern observed especially among women.
Tarjeta 597
Pregunta
Two interviewees say, “After the setback, I adjusted my plan” and “I recovered and kept working toward my goal.” Which well-being concept appears in both qualitative responses?
Respuesta
Resilience; both accounts describe adapting or recovering after adversity.
Tarjeta 598
Pregunta
Biofeedback?
Respuesta
Using real-time information about bodily activity to learn voluntary regulation of that activity.
Tarjeta 599
Pregunta
How does perceived control affect stress?
Respuesta
A sense of control often reduces stress, while uncontrollability can intensify it.
Tarjeta 600
Pregunta
Psychoneuroimmunology?
Respuesta
The study of interactions among psychological processes, the nervous system, hormones, and immune function.
Tarjeta 601
Pregunta
Subjective well-being?
Respuesta
A person's life satisfaction together with the balance of positive and negative emotion.
Tarjeta 602
Pregunta
Psychological disorder?
Respuesta
A clinically significant disturbance in thought, emotion, or behavior that causes distress or impairment.
Tarjeta 603
Pregunta
How can gratitude practice affect well-being?
Respuesta
Regularly noticing valued experiences can increase positive emotion for some people, though effects vary.
Tarjeta 604
Pregunta
A school survey samples 120 students from a population of 1,800 enrolled students. What are the sample and population?
Respuesta
The 120 respondents are the sample; all 1,800 enrolled students are the target population.
Tarjeta 605
Pregunta
Signature strengths?
Respuesta
Character strengths that are especially central and natural to a person and can be used deliberately.
Tarjeta 606
Pregunta
Biopsychosocial model?
Respuesta
Biological, psychological, and sociocultural factors interact in health and disorder.
Tarjeta 607
Pregunta
Six broad virtue categories in positive psychology?
Respuesta
Wisdom, courage, humanity, justice, temperance, and transcendence.
Tarjeta 608
Pregunta
Posttraumatic growth?
Respuesta
Positive psychological change that can develop through struggling with trauma or major stress; it doesn't erase harm.
Tarjeta 609
Pregunta
An optional well-being survey is completed mostly by students who already attend wellness clubs. How does this affect generalizability?
Respuesta
Self-selection creates sampling bias, so the results may not generalize to students with different interests or experiences.
Tarjeta 610
Pregunta
A survey asks people to report how often they exercise. What limitation should the researcher consider?
Respuesta
Self-report can be distorted by inaccurate memory, question wording, or socially desirable answers.
Tarjeta 611
Pregunta
A treatment comparison reports p = .03 with a preset alpha of .05. Is the result statistically significant?
Respuesta
Yes. Because .03 is below .05, the result is statistically significant, though that does not show the effect is large or important.
Tarjeta 612
Pregunta
A striking well-being result appears in one small study. What should happen before confidence grows?
Respuesta
Independent replication and critical peer review should test whether the finding is reliable and the methods support the claim.
Tarjeta 613
Pregunta
Biological explanation of disorder?
Respuesta
It focuses on genetic, neural, hormonal, or other physiological factors.
Tarjeta 614
Pregunta
Attention-deficit/hyperactivity disorder?
Respuesta
A neurodevelopmental disorder involving developmentally inappropriate inattention and/or hyperactivity-impulsivity that impairs functioning.
Tarjeta 615
Pregunta
Purpose of the DSM?
Respuesta
It supplies shared diagnostic categories and criteria for communication, research, and treatment planning.
Tarjeta 616
Pregunta
What must informed consent explain before people join a psychology study?
Respuesta
The study's general nature, foreseeable risks and benefits, confidentiality limits, voluntary participation, and the right to withdraw. Research with minors also generally requires guardian permission and the child's assent.
Tarjeta 617
Pregunta
Behavioral explanation of disorder?
Respuesta
It focuses on maladaptive responses learned through conditioning or observation.
Tarjeta 618
Pregunta
Autism spectrum disorder?
Respuesta
A neurodevelopmental disorder involving differences in social communication and restricted or repetitive behavior, with varied support needs.
Tarjeta 619
Pregunta
Schizophrenia's broad symptom areas?
Respuesta
Delusions, hallucinations, disorganized thought or speech, disorganized movement, and negative symptoms.
Tarjeta 620
Pregunta
Major depressive disorder?
Respuesta
A sustained depressive episode with mood, cognitive, physical, and motivational changes that impair functioning.
Tarjeta 621
Pregunta
Specific phobia?
Respuesta
Intense, persistent fear of a particular object or situation that leads to avoidance or distress.
Tarjeta 622
Pregunta
Obsessive-compulsive disorder?
Respuesta
Obsessions, compulsions, or both consume time or cause significant distress or impairment.
Tarjeta 623
Pregunta
Dissociative amnesia?
Respuesta
Inability to recall important autobiographical information, usually related to trauma or stress, beyond ordinary forgetting.
Tarjeta 624
Pregunta
Bipolar I disorder?
Respuesta
A bipolar disorder defined by at least one full manic episode, often with depressive episodes.
Tarjeta 625
Pregunta
Posttraumatic stress disorder?
Respuesta
Persistent intrusion, avoidance, negative mood or thinking, and heightened arousal after trauma exposure.
Tarjeta 626
Pregunta
Anorexia nervosa?
Respuesta
Persistent energy restriction, significantly low body weight, intense fear of weight gain, and disturbed body experience.
Tarjeta 627
Pregunta
Cognitive explanation of disorder?
Respuesta
It focuses on maladaptive beliefs, interpretations, and thinking patterns.
Tarjeta 628
Pregunta
Bipolar II disorder?
Respuesta
A bipolar disorder involving hypomanic and major depressive episodes without a full manic episode.
Tarjeta 629
Pregunta
Purpose of the ICD?
Respuesta
The World Health Organization's classification system supplies internationally used codes and categories for health conditions, including mental disorders.
Tarjeta 630
Pregunta
Bulimia nervosa?
Respuesta
Repeated binge eating followed by compensatory behavior, with self-evaluation strongly influenced by body shape or weight.
Tarjeta 631
Pregunta
What broadly defines a personality disorder pattern?
Respuesta
An enduring, inflexible pattern that departs from cultural expectations, begins in adolescence or early adulthood, and causes distress or impairment.
Tarjeta 632
Pregunta
Ataque de nervios?
Respuesta
A culture-related syndrome, described especially in some Latin American and Caribbean communities, involving an acute episode of intense emotional distress and loss of control.
Tarjeta 633
Pregunta
Psychodynamic explanation of disorder?
Respuesta
It focuses on unconscious conflicts and early relationships.
Tarjeta 634
Pregunta
Three considerations when identifying a psychological disorder?
Respuesta
Dysfunction, experienced distress, and deviation from social norms, interpreted with cultural context.
Tarjeta 635
Pregunta
When may deception be ethically considered in research, and what must follow?
Respuesta
Only when justified, minimal-risk, and not replaceable by a practical alternative; researchers must debrief participants promptly and explain the deception.
Tarjeta 636
Pregunta
Comorbidity?
Respuesta
The presence of two or more disorders in the same person.
Tarjeta 637
Pregunta
Humanistic explanation of distress?
Respuesta
It focuses on blocked growth, incongruence, and conditions of worth.
Tarjeta 638
Pregunta
Confidential versus anonymous research data?
Respuesta
Confidential data can be linked to identities but are protected; anonymous data are collected without identifying links.
Tarjeta 639
Pregunta
Stigma around mental disorder?
Respuesta
Negative stereotypes and discrimination that can increase distress and discourage help-seeking.
Tarjeta 640
Pregunta
Why must diagnosis consider culture?
Respuesta
Norms affect how distress is expressed and interpreted, so behavior can't be judged outside its context.
Tarjeta 641
Pregunta
Sociocultural explanation of disorder?
Respuesta
It focuses on social roles, inequality, relationships, discrimination, and cultural context.
Tarjeta 642
Pregunta
Two clinicians independently use the same criteria. What quality is being checked?
Respuesta
Interrater reliability.
Tarjeta 643
Pregunta
A category improves communication but overlaps another category. Balanced conclusion?
Respuesta
Classification is useful, but boundaries and comorbidity limit the idea of perfectly separate disorders.
Tarjeta 644
Pregunta
Best account of neurodevelopmental-disorder causes?
Respuesta
Genetic, physiological, and environmental factors may interact; no single cause explains every case.
Tarjeta 645
Pregunta
Evolutionary explanation of disorder?
Respuesta
It asks whether a behavior or mental process reflects an adaptation, mismatch, or cost related to survival and reproduction.
Tarjeta 646
Pregunta
Delusion?
Respuesta
A firmly held false belief that persists despite strong contrary evidence and isn't explained by cultural context.
Tarjeta 647
Pregunta
Agoraphobia?
Respuesta
Intense fear of situations where escape or help may feel difficult, such as crowds, transit, open spaces, or being outside alone.
Tarjeta 648
Pregunta
Best account of schizophrenia risk?
Respuesta
Biological vulnerability, including genetic and neural factors, interacts with prenatal and later environmental stressors.
Tarjeta 649
Pregunta
Eclectic approach to disorder?
Respuesta
Using ideas or treatments from more than one psychological perspective when evidence and client needs support them.
Tarjeta 650
Pregunta
Hallucination?
Respuesta
A sensory perception without a matching external stimulus.
Tarjeta 651
Pregunta
Panic disorder?
Respuesta
Recurrent unexpected panic attacks followed by continuing concern or behavior change related to more attacks.
Tarjeta 652
Pregunta
Best account of depressive-disorder causes?
Respuesta
Biological vulnerability can interact with learning, cognition, relationships, culture, and stressful events.
Tarjeta 653
Pregunta
Two people face the same stressor, but the person with greater underlying vulnerability develops symptoms. Which model fits?
Respuesta
The diathesis–stress model.
Tarjeta 654
Pregunta
Cluster A personality disorders?
Respuesta
The odd or eccentric cluster: paranoid, schizoid, and schizotypal personality disorders.
Tarjeta 655
Pregunta
What do psychotherapy meta-analyses generally find?
Respuesta
Psychotherapy is effective on average, while outcomes vary by problem, method, therapist, and client.
Tarjeta 656
Pregunta
Evidence-based treatment?
Respuesta
Using the best research evidence together with clinical expertise and the client's needs, culture, and preferences.
Tarjeta 657
Pregunta
Therapeutic alliance?
Respuesta
A collaborative, trusting relationship in which client and therapist agree on goals and work.
Tarjeta 658
Pregunta
Cultural humility in therapy?
Respuesta
Ongoing self-reflection, respect, and willingness to learn from the client's cultural experience.
Tarjeta 659
Pregunta
Deinstitutionalization?
Respuesta
Moving many people from long-term psychiatric hospitals toward community-based care, aided partly by medication.
Tarjeta 660
Pregunta
A client safely approaches a feared situation in planned steps instead of avoiding it. Which treatment method is this?
Respuesta
Exposure therapy.
Tarjeta 661
Pregunta
Nonmaleficence in therapy?
Respuesta
Avoiding or minimizing harm.
Tarjeta 662
Pregunta
Four medication categories in the course?
Respuesta
Antidepressants, antianxiety drugs, lithium, and antipsychotic medications.
Tarjeta 663
Pregunta
Depressive cognitive triad?
Respuesta
Negative views of oneself, the world, and the future.
Tarjeta 664
Pregunta
Applied behavior analysis?
Respuesta
Using measured learning principles to change socially significant behavior.
Tarjeta 665
Pregunta
Psychosurgery?
Respuesta
Rare invasive treatment that alters brain tissue; modern use is tightly limited because effects can be irreversible.
Tarjeta 666
Pregunta
Free association?
Respuesta
A psychodynamic technique in which a client says whatever comes to mind to explore unconscious themes.
Tarjeta 667
Pregunta
A client examines evidence for an automatic thought and develops a more accurate alternative. Which technique is this?
Respuesta
Cognitive restructuring.
Tarjeta 668
Pregunta
One advantage of group therapy?
Respuesta
Members can receive support, feedback, and practice with others while learning they aren't alone.
Tarjeta 669
Pregunta
Lobotomy?
Respuesta
An obsolete form of psychosurgery that cut frontal-lobe connections and often caused severe, irreversible harm.
Tarjeta 670
Pregunta
Best account of bipolar-disorder causes?
Respuesta
Biological and genetic influences are important, while stress and social context can affect episodes.
Tarjeta 671
Pregunta
Cognitive-behavioral therapy?
Respuesta
Treatment that changes maladaptive thinking and behavior together.
Tarjeta 672
Pregunta
Disorganized speech in schizophrenia?
Respuesta
Speech becomes difficult to follow because ideas or words are connected in disordered ways.
Tarjeta 673
Pregunta
Social anxiety disorder?
Respuesta
Intense fear of scrutiny or negative evaluation in social situations.
Tarjeta 674
Pregunta
Best account of obsessive-compulsive-disorder causes?
Respuesta
Biological factors and learned relief from compulsions can combine with maladaptive beliefs.
Tarjeta 675
Pregunta
Rational-emotive behavior therapy?
Respuesta
A cognitive-behavioral approach that challenges rigid, irrational beliefs and builds more workable alternatives.
Tarjeta 676
Pregunta
Dissociative fugue?
Respuesta
Dissociative amnesia accompanied by unexpected travel or confusion about identity.
Tarjeta 677
Pregunta
Cluster B personality disorders?
Respuesta
The dramatic, emotional, or erratic cluster: antisocial, borderline, histrionic, and narcissistic personality disorders.
Tarjeta 678
Pregunta
Best account of anxiety-disorder causes?
Respuesta
Biological vulnerability, learned fear, avoidance, and maladaptive interpretation can interact.
Tarjeta 679
Pregunta
Catatonia?
Respuesta
Markedly disordered movement, which can include unusual excitement or profound lack of movement.
Tarjeta 680
Pregunta
Manic episode?
Respuesta
A distinct period of unusually elevated or irritable mood and increased energy severe enough to cause major impairment or require hospitalization.
Tarjeta 681
Pregunta
Dissociative identity disorder?
Respuesta
Disruption of identity involving distinct personality states and gaps in autobiographical memory.
Tarjeta 682
Pregunta
Best account of feeding and eating disorder causes?
Respuesta
Biological, cognitive, behavioral, family, social, and cultural factors can interact.
Tarjeta 683
Pregunta
Cluster C personality disorders?
Respuesta
The anxious or fearful cluster: avoidant, dependent, and obsessive-compulsive personality disorders.
Tarjeta 684
Pregunta
Taijin kyofusho?
Respuesta
A culture-related syndrome described in Japan involving intense fear that one's appearance, gaze, odor, or behavior will offend or embarrass other people.
Tarjeta 685
Pregunta
Negative symptom of schizophrenia?
Respuesta
A reduction in a typical function, such as emotional expression, speech, motivation, or movement.
Tarjeta 686
Pregunta
What experiences are often linked with dissociative disorders?
Respuesta
Severe trauma or stress, though diagnosis requires careful assessment and isn't inferred from trauma alone.
Tarjeta 687
Pregunta
Hypomanic episode?
Respuesta
A noticeable period of elevated or irritable mood and increased energy that is less severe and impairing than mania.
Tarjeta 688
Pregunta
Generalized anxiety disorder?
Respuesta
Persistent, hard-to-control anxiety and worry across several areas of life.
Tarjeta 689
Pregunta
Hoarding disorder?
Respuesta
Persistent difficulty discarding possessions, producing clutter that impairs the use of living spaces.
Tarjeta 690
Pregunta
Best account of personality-disorder causes?
Respuesta
Biological dispositions and long-term social, cultural, learning, and cognitive influences can interact.
Tarjeta 691
Pregunta
Why can't one symptom establish a disorder?
Respuesta
Diagnosis depends on a broader pattern, duration, distress or impairment, context, and alternative explanations.
Tarjeta 692
Pregunta
Persistent depressive disorder?
Respuesta
A chronic depressed mood with related symptoms lasting at least two years in adults or one year in children and adolescents.
Tarjeta 693
Pregunta
Fidelity in therapy ethics?
Respuesta
Maintaining trust, responsibility, and professional commitments.
Tarjeta 694
Pregunta
Systematic desensitization?
Respuesta
Gradual exposure to a fear hierarchy while practicing relaxation or another incompatible response.
Tarjeta 695
Pregunta
Dream interpretation in psychodynamic therapy?
Respuesta
Exploring possible personal meanings and unconscious themes in dreams, not treating dreams as objective facts.
Tarjeta 696
Pregunta
Dialectical behavior therapy?
Respuesta
A cognitive-behavioral approach that builds mindfulness, emotion regulation, distress tolerance, and relationship skills.
Tarjeta 697
Pregunta
Integrity in therapy ethics?
Respuesta
Being honest and accurate in professional work.
Tarjeta 698
Pregunta
Aversion therapy?
Respuesta
Pairing an unwanted behavior with an unpleasant stimulus to reduce the behavior.
Tarjeta 699
Pregunta
Tardive dyskinesia?
Respuesta
A movement disorder that can occur as a serious side effect of long-term antipsychotic medication.
Tarjeta 700
Pregunta
ECT versus TMS?
Respuesta
ECT induces a controlled seizure under anesthesia; TMS uses magnetic pulses without surgery. Both can treat selected conditions.
Tarjeta 701
Pregunta
Respect for rights and dignity?
Respuesta
Protecting autonomy, privacy, confidentiality, and fair treatment.
Tarjeta 702
Pregunta
A clinic awards points for target behaviors, and clients exchange the points for privileges. Which method is this?
Respuesta
A token economy.
Tarjeta 703
Pregunta
A therapist emphasizes empathy, genuineness, active listening, and unconditional positive regard. Which approach is this?
Respuesta
Person-centered therapy.
Tarjeta 704
Pregunta
What can hypnosis treat, and what can't it reliably do?
Respuesta
It can help some pain and anxiety; it can't reliably recover accurate memories or produce true age regression.
Tarjeta 705
Pregunta
Medication and psychotherapy outperform either alone for some conditions. Best conclusion?
Respuesta
Combined treatment can be useful for some clients, but the best plan depends on the condition and individual evidence.

Workload	Errors
Low	2
High	8

Condition	Mean minutes
Assigned topic	34
Chosen topic	47

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